Ch 3: The First Farmers and Herders: The Neolithic Age

 

Chapter 3: The First Farmers and Herders: The Neolithic Age

PSTET History (Paper II & III)

---

🎯 Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

• Understand the significance of the Neolithic Revolution as a turning point in human history

• Identify and describe major Neolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent

• Explain the process of domestication of plants and animals

• Analyze the technological innovations of the Neolithic period

• Trace the transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer to settled village life

---

🌱 3.1 Introduction: The Neolithic Revolution

The Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age, marks one of the most fundamental transformations in human history—the shift from food gathering to food producing. This transition was so significant that the archaeologist V. Gordon Childe called it the "Neolithic Revolution" .

💡 PSTET Special: The word "Neolithic" comes from Greek words neos (new) and lithos (stone), referring to the new technique of polishing stone tools that characterized this period.

3.1.1 Why Was the Neolithic Revolution So Important?

3.1.2 Chronological Framework of the Neolithic Age in India

The Neolithic Age in India shows considerable regional variation in terms of chronology:

Region	Time Period	Key Characteristics
North-West (Mehrgarh)	7000 – 5500 BCE	Early Neolithic, aceramic phase, domestication of wheat, barley, sheep, goat
Kashmir Valley (Burzahom)	3000 – 1000 BCE	Pit dwellings, bone tools, domesticated animals, later pottery
Ganga Valley (Chirand)	2500 – 1500 BCE	Rice cultivation, bone tools, circular huts, burial practices
South India	3000 – 1000 BCE	Ash mounds, cattle herding, millet cultivation
North-East India	2700 – 2000 BCE	Corded pottery, polished stone axes, shifting cultivation

🔍 Recent Research Update: A 2025 study using new radiocarbon dating of human tooth enamel from Mehrgarh suggests a revised chronology, indicating that the aceramic Neolithic cemetery at Mehrgarh started between 5200 and 4900 BCE, challenging the previously assumed date of around 8000 BCE .

---

🏺 3.2 Key Concepts of the Neolithic Age

3.2.1 Domestication of Plants: The Beginning of Agriculture

The domestication of plants was a gradual process that occurred over thousands of years. Early farmers selected and cultivated plants with desirable traits.

🌾 Major Crops Domesticated in the Indian Subcontinent

Crop	Region of Domestication	Time Period	Evidence
Wheat	Mehrgarh, Balochistan	c. 7000 BCE	Charred grains, impressions in clay
Barley	Mehrgarh, Balochistan	c. 7000 BCE	Charred grains
Rice	Belan Valley, Ganga Valley	c. 6000-5000 BCE	Charred grains at Chopani-Mando, Mahagara
Millets	South India, Deccan	c. 3000 BCE	Charred grains at sites in Karnataka
Pulses (lentil, pea)	Mehrgarh, North-West India	c. 7000-5000 BCE	Charred seeds
Cotton	Mehrgarh	c. 5000 BCE	Cotton seeds, textile impressions
Sesame	Indus Valley	c. 4000 BCE	Charred seeds

🌿 PSTET Fact: According to recent research, wild rice cultivation appeared in the Belan and Ganges valley regions of northern India as early as 4530 BCE and 5440 BCE respectively .

3.2.2 Domestication of Animals

Along with plants, Neolithic people domesticated animals that provided meat, milk, wool, and labor.

🐑 Major Domesticated Animals

Animal	Wild Ancestor	Region of Domestication	Purpose
Sheep	Asiatic mouflon	West Asia, spread to India	Meat, wool, milk
Goat	Bezoar ibex	West Asia, spread to India	Meat, milk, hair
Cattle (zebu)	Indian wild aurochs	Indian subcontinent	Meat, milk, labor, dung
Water Buffalo	Wild water buffalo	Indian subcontinent	Milk, meat, labor
Dog	Wolf	Multiple regions	Hunting, companionship, protection

3.2.3 Polished Stone Tools: The Technological Marvel

The hallmark of Neolithic technology was the grinding and polishing of stone tools, which produced sharper, more durable edges than chipped tools.

🪨 Types of Neolithic Tools

Tool Type	Description	Purpose
Celts (axes)	Polished stone axes, often with a pointed butt	Clearing forests, woodworking
Adzes	Similar to axes but with asymmetrical edge	Shaping wood, digging
Chisels	Narrow, elongated tools with sharp edge	Fine woodworking
Sickles	Curved blades with serrated edge	Harvesting grain
Grinding stones	Flat stones with muller/quern	Grinding grain into flour
Ring stones	Circular stones with hole	Weights for digging sticks

📍 Regional Variations in Tool Types

Region	Tool Characteristics
North-Western India	Rectangular axes with curved cutting edge
Eastern India (Chirand)	Polished stone axes with rectangular butt
Southern India	Axes with oval sides and pointed butt
North-Eastern India	Shouldered celts, similar to Southeast Asian types

🏹 Important: The discovery of double-shouldered celts and cord-marked pottery at Daojali Hading (Assam) provided the first evidence of an Eastern Asiatic Neolithic complex in India, dated to around 2700 years ago .

3.2.4 The Beginning of Pottery

Pottery was one of the most important inventions of the Neolithic Age. It allowed for the storage, cooking, and transportation of food.

🏺 Evolution of Pottery Making

Phase	Technique	Characteristics
Pre-Pottery Neolithic	No pottery	Aceramic phase (e.g., early Mehrgarh)
Early Pottery	Hand-made, simple shapes	Coarse fabric, mat impressions at base
Developed Pottery	Turntable/ slow wheel	Better finish, painted designs
Mature Pottery	Potter's wheel	Uniform shapes, elaborate decorations

🎨 Types of Neolithic Pottery

Type	Description	Sites
Grey Ware	Hand-made, coarse grey pottery	Burzahom Period I
Black Polished Ware	Polished black surface, wheel-made	Burzahom Period II
Cord-marked Pottery	Impressions of cords on surface	Daojali Hading, North-East India
Mat-impressed Pottery	Impressions of woven mats at base	Burzahom, Chirand
Red Ware	Red slip, sometimes painted	Late Neolithic sites

🏺 PSTET Fact: The Neolithic era communities first made pottery by hand and later with the help of the potter's wheel, which was a revolutionary invention that allowed for mass production of uniform vessels .

3.2.5 The First Permanent Villages

The transition to agriculture led to the establishment of permanent settlements for the first time in human history.

🏕️ Characteristics of Neolithic Villages

Feature	Description
Location	Near water sources, fertile soil, raw materials
Housing	Varied by region—pit dwellings (Burzahom), mud-brick houses (Mehrgarh), circular huts (Chirand)
Size	Small villages of 1-5 hectares, population 100-300
Layout	Clustered houses, storage areas, burial grounds
Economy	Mixed farming (agriculture + animal husbandry), supplemented by hunting, fishing, gathering

---

🏞️ 3.3 Major Neolithic Sites in the Indian Subcontinent

3.3.1 Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan): The Earliest Farming Community

Location: On the Kachi Plain of Balochistan, near the Bolan Pass
Time Period: 7000 – 2500 BCE
Excavated by: French Archaeological Mission led by Jean-François Jarrige (1974-1985)

📜 Discovery and Significance

Mehrgarh is one of the most important Neolithic sites in South Asia, providing evidence of the earliest farming communities in the Indian subcontinent. It was discovered by the French Archaeological Mission in 1974 and excavated over eleven seasons .

🌟 Why Mehrgarh Matters: Mehrgarh provides the earliest evidence of agriculture, animal domestication, and settled life in South Asia, predating the Indus Valley Civilization by several millennia.

🏠 Settlement Pattern

Period	Phase	Characteristics
Period I (7000-5500 BCE)	Aceramic Neolithic	Mud-brick houses (4-6 rooms), no pottery, domestication of wheat, barley, sheep, goat
Period II (5500-4500 BCE)	Ceramic Neolithic	Introduction of pottery, expansion of settlement
Period III (4500-3500 BCE)	Chalcolithic	Copper metallurgy, trade networks develop

🌾 Agriculture at Mehrgarh

Recent research has revised the chronology of Mehrgarh. A 2025 study using Bayesian modelling of radiocarbon dates on human tooth enamel indicates that the aceramic Neolithic cemetery at Mehrgarh started between 5200 and 4900 BCE, suggesting a later appearance of farming life in the Indus Valley than previously thought .

Crops cultivated:

• Wheat (emmer and einkorn)

• Barley (six-row and two-row)

• Dates

• Cotton (earliest evidence in the world)

🐑 Animal Domestication

Animal	Period	Evidence
Goat	Period I (7000 BCE)	Bone morphology changes, age profiles
Sheep	Period I (7000 BCE)	Bone evidence
Cattle (zebu)	Period II (5500 BCE)	Domestication of local wild aurochs

🪦 Burial Practices

Mehrgarh provides important evidence of Neolithic burial customs:

• Grave goods: People were buried with ornaments, baskets, and tools

• Beads: Many burials contained elaborate bead necklaces made of steatite, shell, and semi-precious stones

• Body position: Bodies placed in flexed position

• Child burials: Some child burials included miniature vessels

🛠️ Craft Activities

Craft	Evidence	Significance
Bead-making	Steatite beads, lapis lazuli	Long-distance trade (lapis from Badakhshan, Afghanistan)
Basketry	Impressions on clay	Early evidence of weaving
Pottery	From Period II onward	Hand-made, then wheel-made
Metallurgy	From Period III	Copper beads, tools

🔍 Connection to Indus Valley: Mehrgarh shows continuity of occupation and cultural development that eventually led to the Indus Valley Civilization. The site provides evidence of increasing complexity, trade, and technological innovation over thousands of years.

---

3.3.2 Burzahom (Kashmir Valley): The Northern Neolithic

Location: Srinagar District, Jammu and Kashmir, at an elevation of 1,800 meters (5,900 ft)
Time Period: 3000 – 1000 BCE
Excavated by: Helmut de Terra and T.T. Paterson (1939), T.N. Khazanchi (1960-1971)

🏞️ Geographical Setting

Burzahom is located about 16 kilometers northwest of Srinagar on an ancient Pleistocene lake bed with Karewa soil (clay formation). The site has a commanding view of Dal Lake, about 2 kilometers away. The word "Burzahom" means "birch" in Kashmiri, referring to the birch trees found in the excavated dwelling areas as roofing material .

📜 Cultural Phases at Burzahom

Recent genetic research published in 2025 has confirmed four phases of human habitation at Burzahom :

Period	Phase	Time Period	Key Characteristics
Period I	Neolithic (Aceramic)	c. 3000-2500 BCE	Pit dwellings, coarse grey pottery, no wheel-made pottery
Period II	Neolithic (Ceramic)	c. 2500-1500 BCE	Ground-level structures, polished black ware, burials
Period III	Megalithic	c. 1500-500 BCE	Megalithic structures, menhirs, red pottery
Period IV	Early Historic	c. 500 BCE onward	Post-megalithic period

🏠 Unique Features: Pit Dwellings

The most remarkable feature of early Burzahom is the pit dwellings:

"The remarkable find during this period was of pits which were inferred as dwelling units; these were in circular or oval shape dug in compact natural Karewa soil formation. Some of the deep pits had steps and ladder access to the bottom level. The largest measuring 2.74 metres at the top to 4.75 metres at the base at a depth of 3.95 metres" .

Characteristics of pit dwellings:

• Circular or oval pits dug into the ground

• Steps or ladders for access

• Post-holes for superstructure

• Birch thatch roofing

• Shallow pits nearby for storage or hearths

🪦 Burial Practices: Human-Animal Burials

Burzahom provides unique evidence of burial practices:

"The first burial practice from Kashmir came into light through Burzahom. Here the most interesting part is that the animals were buried along with humans, the burials are both primary and secondary. The skeletons were balmed with red ochre. The burials reveal trepanation in the skull" .

Burial features:

• Human-animal joint burials: Dogs, antlered deer, and wild boar found with human skeletons

• Trepanation: Evidence of cranial surgery (drilling holes in skull)

• Red ochre: Skeletons covered with red ochre

• Sitting position: Bodies placed in crouched/sitting position

• Grave goods: Pots, tools, beads

🛠️ Tool Technology

Tool Type	Materials	Description
Harvesters	Stone	Rectangular and oval double-notched harvesters
Points	Bone, antler	Arrowheads, spear points
Needles	Bone	With and without eyes, for sewing
Awls	Bone	Piercing tools
Harpoons	Bone	Fishing equipment
Celts	Stone	Polished stone axes

🎨 Artistic Expression

One of the most important finds at Burzahom is a carved stone slab:

"One stone slab is 48–27 centimetres which depicts, on one polished side, sketches of hunting scenes such as a hunter spearing an antlered deer and another hunter in the process of releasing an arrow, and a sketch of the sun" .

🌾 Agriculture and Economy

Crop/Animal	Evidence
Wheat	Charred grains
Barley	Charred grains
Lentil	Charred seeds (indicating links with Central Asia)
Domestic animals	Sheep, goat, cattle
Wild animals	Deer, wild boar (hunting continued)

🧬 Recent Genetic Research (2025)

A groundbreaking 2025 study published in Scientific Reports analyzed ancient mitochondrial DNA from Burzahom :

"Our findings suggest that Neolithic and Megalithic periods were characterized by predominantly local genetic influence on the maternal gene pool, with some evidence of genetic contact with the Iron Age Swat Valley. While medieval populations showed clear signs of genetic contacts with Swat Valley historical and Central Asian Bronze age populations."

Key findings:

• Local continuity: Neolithic populations were primarily of local origin

• External contacts: Evidence of cultural and genetic exchange with Swat Valley (Pakistan)

• Central Asian links: Medieval samples show affinity with Central Asian populations

• Roopkund connection: One medieval sample showed affinity with a medieval sample from Roopkund Lake

🌐 PSTET Note: The Burzahom genetic study demonstrates how modern science (archaeogenetics) is rewriting our understanding of ancient migrations and cultural contacts.

🏛️ Cultural Connections

Burzahom shows evidence of wide-ranging contacts:

Region	Similarities
Swat Valley (Pakistan)	Pottery types, decorations, black ware
Central Asia	Lentil cultivation, burial practices
North China	Pit dwellings, bone tools
Harappan Civilization	Pottery styles, carnelian beads

---

3.3.3 Chirand (Bihar): The Neolithic of the Ganga Valley

Location: Saran District, Bihar, on the northern bank of the Ganga River
Time Period: 2500 – 1500 BCE (Neolithic phase)
Excavated by: Archaeological Survey of India, B.S. Verma (1960s)

📜 Discovery and Significance

Chirand is one of the most important Neolithic sites in the Ganga Valley, providing evidence of early agriculture and settled life in eastern India. The site was excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India under B.S. Verma .

🏠 Settlement Pattern

Feature	Description
Houses	Circular huts with wattle and daub construction
Floors	Rammed clay, sometimes burnt
Hearths	Inside houses and in open areas
Storage pits	For storing grain
Layout	Clustered habitations with common areas

🔨 Tool Technology: The Bone Tool Industry

Chirand is famous for its extensive bone tool industry, which is among the richest in India .

Tool Type	Materials	Purpose
Arrowheads	Bone	Hunting
Spearheads	Bone	Hunting, fishing
Harpoons	Bone	Fishing
Awls	Bone	Piercing leather/hide
Needles	Bone	Sewing
Sickles	Stone (with bone handles)	Harvesting
Celts	Polished stone	Woodworking

🏺 Pottery

Type	Characteristics
Red Ware	Coarse fabric, hand-made
Grey Ware	Medium fabric, sometimes burnished
Black-and-Red Ware	Early examples, later became common
Decorations	Incised lines, impressed designs

🌾 Agriculture and Economy

Crop/Resource	Evidence
Rice	Charred grains (earliest in Ganga Valley)
Barley	Charred grains
Pulses	Lentil, pea, gram
Domestic animals	Cattle, sheep, goat, pig
Wild animals	Deer, wild boar, fish
Hunting/gathering	Continued alongside farming

🪦 Burial Practices

Chirand provides important evidence of burial customs in the Ganga Valley Neolithic:

• Extended burials: Bodies laid out full length

• Grave orientation: East-west orientation

• Grave goods: Pots, tools, ornaments placed with dead

• Child burials: Sometimes in pots (urn burials)

🏛️ Cultural Sequence

Period	Phase	Characteristics
Period I	Neolithic (2500-1500 BCE)	Circular huts, bone tools, rice cultivation
Period II	Chalcolithic (1500-1000 BCE)	Copper tools, black-and-red ware
Period III	Iron Age (1000-600 BCE)	Iron tools, Northern Black Polished Ware

🔍 PSTET Fact: The Neolithic culture at Chirand is characterized by permanent settlements, a food-producing economy supplemented by hunting and fishing, animal husbandry, ground stone and bone tools, and later, pottery .

---

🌍 3.4 Regional Neolithic Cultures of India

3.4.1 Northern Neolithic (Kashmir Valley)

Feature	Description
Key Sites	Burzahom, Gufkral, Kanispora
Time Period	3000 – 1000 BCE
Housing	Pit dwellings (early), ground-level structures (late)
Tools	Bone tools abundant, polished stone axes
Pottery	Grey ware (early), black polished ware (late)
Burials	Human-animal joint burials, trepanation
Economy	Wheat, barley, lentil; sheep, goat, cattle; hunting continues
External Contacts	Swat Valley, Central Asia, North China

3.4.2 Ganga Valley Neolithic

Feature	Description
Key Sites	Chirand, Senuwar, Chechar, Taradih
Time Period	2500 – 1500 BCE
Housing	Circular wattle-and-daub huts
Tools	Bone tools (arrowheads, harpoons), polished stone celts
Pottery	Red ware, grey ware, early black-and-red ware
Burials	Extended burials, urn burials for children
Economy	Rice cultivation (earliest in region), barley, pulses; cattle, sheep, goat
Special Feature	Richest bone tool industry in India

3.4.3 Southern Neolithic (Deccan, South India)

Feature	Description
Key Sites	Brahmagiri, Maski, Tekkalakota, Hallur, Piklihal
Time Period	3000 – 1000 BCE
Housing	Circular stone-walled huts
Tools	Stone axes with oval sides and pointed butt (distinctive type)
Pottery	Hand-made grey and red ware
Burials	Stone circles, megalithic burials (later)
Economy	Millets (finger millet, foxtail millet), pulses; cattle herding
Special Feature	Ash mounds—accumulations of burnt cattle dung, evidence of cattle pastoralism

3.4.4 North-Eastern Neolithic

Feature	Description
Key Sites	Daojali Hading (Assam), Gawak Abri, Sarutaru (Meghalaya)
Time Period	2700 – 1500 BCE
Housing	Limited evidence, possibly elevated wooden structures
Tools	Shouldered celts, polished stone axes (double-shouldered type)
Pottery	Cord-marked pottery (made by beating with cord-wrapped paddles)
Burials	Limited evidence
Economy	Shifting cultivation (jhum), root crops, rice
External Contacts	Southeast Asia (similar tool types)

📅 Recent Dating: A 2017 study using optically stimulated luminescence dating confirmed that corded pottery and polished stone tools from Daojali Hading are 2,700 years old, and those from Gawak Abri are 2,300 years old .

3.4.5 Comparative Table of Neolithic Cultures

Region	Time Period	House Type	Key Crops	Key Tools	Distinctive Feature
North-West (Mehrgarh)	7000-2500 BCE	Mud-brick	Wheat, barley	Stone celts	Earliest farming
Kashmir	3000-1000 BCE	Pit dwellings	Wheat, barley, lentil	Bone tools	Human-animal burials
Ganga Valley	2500-1500 BCE	Circular huts	Rice, pulses	Bone harpoons	Rice cultivation
South India	3000-1000 BCE	Stone huts	Millets	Pointed-butt axes	Ash mounds
North-East	2700-1500 BCE	Possibly stilt houses	Rice, tubers	Shouldered celts	Corded pottery

---

🔄 3.5 The Neolithic Way of Life

3.5.1 Social Organization

Aspect	Description
Settlement size	Small villages of 50-300 people
Social structure	Likely clan-based, with elders as leaders
Division of labor	Based on age and gender; specialized crafts (tool-making, pottery)
Trade	Exchange of raw materials (stone, shell, semi-precious stones)
Ritual life	Burial practices suggest belief in afterlife; possible ancestor worship

3.5.2 Gender Roles in Neolithic Society

Activity	Evidence
Farming	Both men and women; grinding stones suggest women's role in food processing
Tool-making	Specialized craft, possibly male-dominated
Pottery-making	Often women's work in traditional societies
Child care	Depictions of children in art
Ritual specialists	Some burials have richer grave goods, suggesting social differentiation

3.5.3 Health and Diet

Aspect	Evidence
Diet	Mixed—cereals, pulses, meat, fish, wild plants
Nutrition	More reliable food supply than hunter-gatherers
Health issues	Dental caries (from carbohydrates), joint problems (from grinding grain)
Lifespan	Estimated 30-35 years (but high infant mortality)

3.5.4 Belief Systems

Evidence	Interpretation
Burial goods	Belief in afterlife, continued existence
Mother Goddess figurines	Fertility cult, worship of female principle
Animal burials (Burzahom)	Special relationship with animals, possibly totemic beliefs
Red ochre on skeletons	Symbolic meaning (blood = life?)
Trepanation (Burzahom)	Possibly to release evil spirits, or medical procedure

---

🌐 3.6 Neolithic Trade and Contacts

3.6.1 Raw Materials and Their Sources

Material	Source	Sites Where Found
Lapis lazuli	Badakhshan, Afghanistan	Mehrgarh
Turquoise	Central Asia, Iran	Mehrgarh
Steatite	Local sources	Mehrgarh, Burzahom
Shell	Coast (Arabian Sea)	Mehrgarh (inland)
Carnelian	Gujarat, Western India	Burzahom, Chirand
Chert	Rohri Hills (Sindh)	Mehrgarh

3.6.2 Evidence of Long-Distance Contacts

Contact	Evidence
Mehrgarh – Central Asia	Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan
Mehrgarh – Iran	Similar pottery styles, architectural features
Burzahom – Swat Valley	Pottery styles, genetic evidence
Burzahom – North China	Pit dwellings, bone tool types
Daojali Hading – Southeast Asia	Shouldered celts, corded pottery

🌍 PSTET Insight: The Neolithic period saw the establishment of trade networks that would become increasingly important in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age periods, laying the foundation for the Indus Valley Civilization.

---

📊 3.7 Timeline of the Neolithic Age in India

Date (BCE)	Event
c. 7000	Beginning of agriculture at Mehrgarh (aceramic phase)
c. 6000	Domestication of zebu cattle in Balochistan
c. 5500	Pottery introduced at Mehrgarh
c. 5000	Cotton cultivated at Mehrgarh
c. 4500	Copper metallurgy begins at Mehrgarh
c. 4000	Spread of agriculture to Kashmir, South India
c. 3500	Mehrgarh develops into large town; trade networks expand
c. 3000	Burzahom Period I (pit dwellings); Neolithic in South India
c. 2700	Daojali Hading (North-East India) Neolithic phase
c. 2500	Chirand Period I (Ganga Valley Neolithic); mature Harappan period begins
c. 2000	Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic transition across India

---

🧠 3.8 Key Terms Summary

Term	Definition
Neolithic Revolution	V. Gordon Childe's term for the transition from hunting-gathering to farming
Domestication	Process of adapting wild plants and animals for human use
Aceramic Neolithic	Neolithic phase without pottery (early Mehrgarh)
Ceramic Neolithic	Neolithic phase with pottery (later Mehrgarh, Burzahom II)
Celt	Polished stone axe, characteristic Neolithic tool
Microlith	Tiny stone tool, continued from Mesolithic
Composite tool	Tool made of multiple materials (stone + wood/bone)
Menhir	Large standing stone, characteristic of Megalithic period
Trepanation	Surgical drilling of holes in the skull (Burzahom)
Karewa	Clay formation in Kashmir Valley, Neolithic deposits
Ash mound	Accumulations of burnt cattle dung in South Indian Neolithic
Shouldered celt	Axe with a shoulder for hafting, characteristic of North-East India
Cord-marked pottery	Pottery decorated with impressions of twisted cords

---

✅ 3.9 Self-Assessment Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The Neolithic site of Mehrgarh is located in:
   a) Kashmir Valley
   b) Balochistan, Pakistan
   c) Bihar
   d) Assam

2. Which Neolithic site is famous for pit dwellings?
   a) Mehrgarh
   b) Chirand
   c) Burzahom
   d) Daojali Hading

3. The earliest evidence of rice cultivation in India comes from:
   a) Mehrgarh
   b) Burzahom
   c) Belan and Ganga valleys
   d) South India

4. What is trepanation?
   a) A type of pottery
   b) A burial practice
   c) Drilling holes in the skull
   d) A stone tool

5. Cord-marked pottery is characteristic of which region?
   a) Kashmir Valley
   b) South India
   c) North-East India
   d) Ganga Valley

Short Answer Questions

6. What is the Neolithic Revolution? Why is it considered a turning point in human history?

7. Describe the main features of pit dwellings at Burzahom.

8. What evidence of agriculture has been found at Mehrgarh?

9. Explain the significance of bone tools at Chirand.

10. What do burial practices tell us about Neolithic beliefs?

Long Answer Questions

11. Compare and contrast the Neolithic cultures of Mehrgarh, Burzahom, and Chirand with reference to settlement pattern, economy, and technology.

12. Discuss the process of domestication of plants and animals in the Indian subcontinent during the Neolithic Age.

13. "The Neolithic period laid the foundation for the emergence of civilization." Elaborate with reference to technological, social, and economic developments.

14. Evaluate the evidence for long-distance contacts and trade during the Neolithic period in India.

---

📚 3.10 PSTET Practice Corner

Expected Questions for PSTET Examination

Question Type	Sample Questions
Fact-based	Name the four cultural periods at Burzahom. What is the time period of Neolithic Chirand? Who excavated Mehrgarh?
Conceptual	Differentiate between aceramic and ceramic Neolithic. What is the significance of the "Neolithic Revolution"?
Application	If you find a polished stone axe with a pointed butt at an excavation, which region's Neolithic culture might it belong to?
Analytical	"Recent genetic research at Burzahom has rewritten our understanding of Neolithic migrations." Discuss.

Answer Key for MCQs:

1. b) Balochistan, Pakistan

2. c) Burzahom

3. c) Belan and Ganga valleys

4. c) Drilling holes in the skull

5. c) North-East India

---

🎯 3.11 Teaching Tips for PSTET Aspirants

As a future teacher, here's how you can make this topic engaging for your students:

Strategy	Activity Idea
🌾 Farming Simulation	Students simulate the transition to farming—compare "hunting" (finding hidden items) with "farming" (growing seeds in class)
🏠 Pit Dwelling Model	Create a model of a Burzahom pit dwelling using clay and sticks
🪨 Tool Classification	Show pictures of tools from different periods; students identify Neolithic tools
🗺️ Map Work	Locate all major Neolithic sites on a map of India
🏺 Pottery Making	Students make clay pots using Neolithic techniques (coiling, then try wheel)
🪦 Burial Analysis	Discuss what grave goods reveal about beliefs—students design a "time capsule" for future archaeologists
📊 Timeline Creation	Create a comparative timeline of Neolithic cultures across India
🔬 Science Connection	Discuss how DNA studies (like the Burzahom study) help understand ancient migrations

---

📖 3.12 Chapter Summary

• The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) marks the transition from food gathering to food producing, a fundamental transformation called the "Neolithic Revolution" by V. Gordon Childe.

• Key developments include domestication of plants and animals, polished stone tools, pottery, and permanent villages.

• Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan, c. 7000-2500 BCE) is the earliest farming community in South Asia, with evidence of wheat, barley, cotton, and domesticated sheep, goat, and cattle. Recent research (2025) suggests a revised chronology of 5200-4900 BCE for the aceramic Neolithic phase .

• Burzahom (Kashmir Valley, c. 3000-1000 BCE) is famous for pit dwellings, human-animal joint burials, and trepanation. Recent genetic research (2025) shows local genetic continuity with contacts with Swat Valley and Central Asia .

• Chirand (Bihar, c. 2500-1500 BCE) provides evidence of early rice cultivation in the Ganga Valley and has one of India's richest bone tool industries .

• Daojali Hading (Assam, c. 2700 years ago) represents the North-Eastern Neolithic with shouldered celts and cord-marked pottery, showing connections with Southeast Asia .

• Neolithic people lived in small villages, practiced mixed farming (agriculture + animal husbandry), developed trade networks, and had complex burial practices suggesting belief in an afterlife.

• Regional variations in Neolithic cultures reflect adaptation to different environments and cultural contacts with neighboring regions.

---

🌟 3.13 Key Takeaways for PSTET

🏆 Remember: The Neolithic period represents the foundation upon which all later civilizations were built. Without the domestication of plants and animals, the invention of pottery, and the establishment of permanent villages, there would have been no cities, no writing, no complex societies.

Important Sites to Remember:

• Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) - Earliest farming, cotton cultivation

• Burzahom (Kashmir) - Pit dwellings, human-animal burials, trepanation

• Chirand (Bihar) - Rice cultivation, bone tool industry

• Daojali Hading (Assam) - Shouldered celts, cord-marked pottery

• Gufkral (Kashmir) - Related to Burzahom

• Hallur, Tekkalakota (Karnataka) - Southern Neolithic, ash mounds

Key Dates:

• Mehrgarh aceramic Neolithic: c. 5200-4900 BCE (revised dating)

• Kashmir Neolithic: c. 3000-1000 BCE

• Ganga Valley Neolithic: c. 2500-1500 BCE

• South Indian Neolithic: c. 3000-1000 BCE

• North-Eastern Neolithic: c. 2700-2000 years ago

Key Innovations:

• Domestication of plants (wheat, barley, rice, millets)

• Domestication of animals (sheep, goat, cattle, buffalo)

• Polished stone tools (celts, adzes, sickles)

• Pottery (storage, cooking)

• Permanent villages

• Trade networks

•