Chapter 1: Ways of Knowing Our Past: When, Where and How?
PSTET History (Paper II & III)
🎯 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
Define history and distinguish between pre-history, proto-history, and history
Identify various archaeological and literary sources with examples
Understand chronological terms like BC/BCE, AD/CE, century, and millennium
Appreciate how historians reconstruct the past using multiple sources
📖 1.1 Introduction: What is History?
History is the systematic study of the past based on written records and other evidence. The word comes from the Greek historia, meaning "inquiry" or "knowledge acquired by investigation."
💡 PSTET Special: As a teacher, you must help students understand that history is not just a collection of dates and events—it's a fascinating story of how humans lived, thought, and evolved over thousands of years.
1.1.1 Why Study History?
| Purpose | Explanation |
|---|---|
| 🏛️ Understand Present | Our current society, culture, and institutions are shaped by historical events |
| 📚 Learn from Past | Successes and failures of previous generations offer valuable lessons |
| 🧭 Develop Identity | History helps us understand our cultural roots and collective identity |
| 🧠 Critical Thinking | Analyzing historical sources develops analytical and evaluative skills |
| 🌍 Global Perspective | Understanding different civilizations fosters tolerance and appreciation |
🕰️ 1.2 Understanding Time Divisions in History
Before we dive into sources, we must understand how historians divide and measure time.
1.2.1 Pre-history, Proto-history, and History
The entire human past is divided into three broad categories based on the availability of written records:
📝 Detailed Explanation:
| Term | Time Period | Characteristics | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-history | Before writing was invented | No written records; only archaeological evidence | Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic ages |
| Proto-history | Period with writing but undeciphered OR limited texts | Has some written records but either not deciphered or not comprehensive | Indus Valley Civilization (script undeciphered), early Vedic period |
| History | Period with deciphered written records | Clear literary evidence exists | From Mahajanapadas (600 BCE) onwards |
🔍 PSTET Fact: In India, history proper begins around 600 BCE with the emergence of Mahajanapadas and the composition of Buddhist and Jain texts .
1.2.2 Understanding Chronological Terms
📅 What is Dating in History?
Dating in history refers to the methods and systems used to place events in chronological order. Different calendar systems and dating conventions help historians pinpoint when events occurred .
📊 Time Intervals in History
Historians use various time intervals to locate events:
| Time Unit | Duration | Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Millennium | 1,000 years | Designating ancient events and long periods | Writing appeared in the 4th millennium BCE |
| Century | 100 years | Most common division for historical periods | The 18th century witnessed the decline of Mughals |
| Decade | 10 years | Pinpointing movements and trends | The 1940s saw India's independence |
| Year | 365 days | Precise dating of events | The Revolt of 1857 |
| Month/Day | - | Very specific events in modern period | August 15, 1947 |
📌 Calculating Centuries and Millennia
Rules for Century Calculation :
| Period | Years Covered |
|---|---|
| 1st century CE | 1 CE to 100 CE |
| 2nd century CE | 101 CE to 200 CE |
| 21st century CE | 2001 CE to 2100 CE |
| 1st century BCE | 100 BCE to 1 BCE |
| 2nd century BCE | 200 BCE to 101 BCE |
⚠️ Important Note: There is no year "0" in history. The calendar goes directly from 1 BCE to 1 CE .
Rules for Millennium Calculation :
| Millennium | Years Covered |
|---|---|
| 1st millennium CE | 1 CE to 1000 CE |
| 2nd millennium CE | 1001 CE to 2000 CE |
| 3rd millennium CE | 2001 CE to 3000 CE |
| 1st millennium BCE | 1000 BCE to 1 BCE |
| 2nd millennium BCE | 2000 BCE to 1001 BCE |
🔤 Understanding Dating Abbreviations
| Abbreviation | Full Form | Meaning | Usage Context |
|---|---|---|---|
| BC | Before Christ | Years before traditional birth of Jesus | Traditional Christian dating |
| AD | Anno Domini (Latin: "in the year of the Lord") | Years after traditional birth of Jesus | Traditional Christian dating |
| BCE | Before Common Era | Secular alternative to BC | Modern academic writing |
| CE | Common Era | Secular alternative to AD | Modern academic writing |
| c./ca. | Circa (Latin: "around") | Approximate date | When exact year unknown |
| AH | Anno Hegirae | Islamic calendar years | Islamic history |
📝 PSTET Tip: Both BC/AD and BCE/CE refer to the same chronological system. BCE = BC, and CE = AD. The only difference is the secular terminology .
🗓️ Different Calendar Systems
Developed by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582
Reformed the earlier Julian calendar
Based on solar year (365 days, with leap years)
Most widely used calendar globally today
Lunar calendar based on moon cycles
12 lunar months = approximately 354 days
Begins with Hijra (Prophet Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE)
Years marked as AH (Anno Hegirae)
🔍 1.3 Sources of History: How Do We Know the Past?
Historians reconstruct the past using various sources. These are broadly divided into Archaeological Sources and Literary Sources .
1.3.1 Archaeological Sources
Archaeological sources are material remains from the past that are excavated or discovered. They are especially important for pre-history and proto-history periods.
📜 Epigraphy (Inscriptions)
Definition: The study of inscriptions engraved on hard surfaces like stone, metal, pottery, wood, etc.
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Material | Stone pillars, copper plates, rock surfaces, temple walls, seals |
| Languages | Prakrit, Sanskrit, Pali, Tamil, Brahmi, Kharoshthi |
| Contents | Royal orders, donations, achievements of kings, land grants, religious teachings |
| Famous Examples | Ashokan edicts (3rd century BCE), Allahabad Pillar inscription (Samudragupta), Hathigumpha inscription (Kharavela) |
🔍 PSTET Fact: James Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837, which allowed reading of Ashokan inscriptions.
🪙 Numismatics (Coins)
Definition: The study of coins and their historical significance.
| Information Gained from Coins |
|---|
| Names and titles of rulers |
| Extent of empire (where coins found) |
| Economic conditions (metal purity) |
| Religious beliefs (symbols and gods depicted) |
| Artistic development |
| Trade contacts (foreign coins found) |
| Period | Coin Type | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Punch-marked (6th century BCE) | Silver and copper | Irregular shape, symbols punched |
| Indo-Greek (2nd century BCE) | Die-struck | Portrait of ruler, Greek legends |
| Kushana (1st-3rd century CE) | Gold | Roman influence, depiction of gods |
| Gupta (4th-6th century CE) | Gold | King performing sacrifices, goddess Lakshmi |
| Sultanate (13th-16th century) | Silver Tanka | Arabic inscriptions, Islamic kalima |
🏛️ Monuments and Architecture
Definition: Buildings and structures that provide evidence of past cultures.
| Type | Examples | Historical Evidence Provided |
|---|---|---|
| Religious | Stupas (Sanchi), Temples (Khajuraho), Mosques (Qutub) | Religious beliefs, patronage, artistic styles |
| Defensive | Forts (Agra, Gwalior), City walls | Military technology, political control |
| Residential | Palaces, ordinary houses | Lifestyle, social stratification |
| Funerary | Tombs (Taj Mahal), Megaliths | Beliefs about afterlife, social status |
🏺 Excavated Remains
Definition: Objects and structures uncovered through systematic digging of ancient sites.
Types of Excavated Finds:
| Category | Examples | What They Reveal |
|---|---|---|
| Tools | Stone axes, bronze tools | Technology, occupations |
| Pottery | Painted Grey Ware, Northern Black Polished Ware | Daily life, trade, art |
| Organic remains | Bones, seeds, charcoal | Diet, agriculture, environment |
| Human remains | Skeletons | Health, causes of death, burial practices |
| Household items | Beads, bangles, toys | Crafts, social life, gender roles |
📝 PSTET Tip: Sir Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), excavated many important sites including Sarnath and Nalanda.
1.3.2 Literary Sources
Literary sources are written texts that provide information about the past. They are divided into indigenous (Indian) and foreign accounts .
📚 Indigenous Literature
Indigenous literature is further divided into religious and secular texts.
Religious Literature:
| Tradition | Texts | Period | Historical Value |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hindu | Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads | 1500-500 BCE | Early Vedic society, rituals, philosophy |
| Puranas (18 major Puranas) | Gupta period | Genealogies of kings, mythology | |
| Epics: Ramayana, Mahabharata | 500 BCE-400 CE | Social values, geography, political ideas | |
| Dharmashastras (Manusmriti) | 200 BCE-200 CE | Social norms, caste system, laws | |
| Buddhist | Tripitakas (Sutta, Vinaya, Abhidhamma) | 5th-3rd century BCE | Teachings of Buddha, monastic organization |
| Jataka tales | 3rd century BCE onwards | Folk traditions, social life, trade | |
| Milindapanho | 1st century BCE | Indo-Greek interactions, Buddhist philosophy | |
| Jain | Angas, Upangas | 5th-3rd century BCE | Jain doctrines, geography, society |
| Kalpasutras | 1st century BCE | Lives of Tirthankaras |
Secular Literature:
| Category | Examples | Historical Value |
|---|---|---|
| Dynastic Histories | Rajatarangini by Kalhana (12th century) | History of Kashmir, rare example of historical writing |
| Biographies | Harshacharita by Banabhatta (7th century) | Life of Harshavardhana, court life |
| Vikramankadevacharita by Bilhana | Life of Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI | |
| Political Treatises | Arthashastra by Kautilya | Mauryan administration, economy, statecraft |
| Scientific Works | Aryabhatiya by Aryabhata (499 CE) | Astronomy, mathematics |
| Sushruta Samhita | Medicine, surgery | |
| Charaka Samhita | Ayurveda | |
| Poetry and Drama | Works of Kalidasa (Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta) | Gupta society, aesthetics, nature |
| Mricchakatika by Shudraka | Urban life, social classes | |
| Tamil Sangam Literature | Ettutogai, Pattupattu | South Indian society, trade, love and war |
🌏 Foreign Accounts
Foreign travelers and writers left valuable accounts of India .
Greek and Roman Writers:
| Writer | Work | Period | Information Provided |
|---|---|---|---|
| Megasthenes | Indica (now lost, quoted by later writers) | 300 BCE (Mauryan) | Detailed account of Mauryan administration, society, Pataliputra city |
| Diodorus Siculus | Bibliotheca Historica | 1st century BCE | References to India, trade |
| Strabo | Geographica | 1st century CE | Geography, trade routes |
| Pliny | Natural History | 1st century CE | Roman trade with India, drain of wealth to India |
| Periplus of the Erythraean Sea | Anonymous sailor's guide | 1st century CE | Maritime trade, ports, goods exported/imported |
| Ptolemy | Geographia | 2nd century CE | Indian geography, cities, trade centers |
Chinese Writers:
| Writer | Work | Period | Information Provided |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fa-Hien | Foguoji (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms) | 399-414 CE (Gupta) | Buddhist pilgrimage, Gupta society, religious conditions |
| Hiuen Tsang | Si-yu-ki (Records of the Western World) | 630-645 CE (Harsha) | Detailed account of India, Buddhism, Harsha's court, Nalanda university |
| I-tsing | A Record of Buddhist Practices | 671-695 CE | Monastic life, Buddhism in India |
Arab and Persian Writers:
| Writer | Work | Period | Information Provided |
|---|---|---|---|
| Al-Masudi | Muruj al-Dhahab | 10th century | Trade, social conditions |
| Al-Biruni | Tahqiq-i-Hind (Kitab-ul-Hind) | 11th century (Mahmud of Ghazni) | Indian philosophy, science, society, religion—most objective account |
| Ibn Battuta | Rihla (Travelogue) | 14th century (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) | Detailed description of Delhi Sultanate, Indian society, customs |
🧩 1.4 How Historians Reconstruct the Past
1.4.1 The Process of Historical Reconstruction
1.4.2 Challenges in Historical Reconstruction
| Challenge | Explanation |
|---|---|
| 🔍 Incomplete Evidence | Only a fraction of past remains survive |
| 📜 Bias in Sources | Most texts written by elites (kings, priests) |
| 🗣️ Language Barriers | Many ancient languages need decipherment |
| 🕰️ Interpretation Issues | Modern biases can distort understanding of past |
| 🔥 Destruction | Wars, natural disasters, climate destroy evidence |
1.4.3 Multiple Disciplines in History
Modern historians use various disciplines to reconstruct the past:
| Discipline | Contribution to History |
|---|---|
| Archaeology | Material remains, excavations |
| Anthropology | Understanding cultures, social structures |
| Linguistics | Language evolution, migrations |
| Geography | Environmental context, trade routes |
| Geology | Climate change, dating methods |
| Botany/Zoology | Agriculture, domestication of animals |
| Chemistry/Physics | Carbon-14 dating, metal composition analysis |
🧠 1.5 Key Terms Summary
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| History | Systematic study of the past based on written records |
| Pre-history | Period before writing was invented |
| Proto-history | Period with writing but undeciphered or limited texts |
| Archaeology | Study of material remains of the past |
| Epigraphy | Study of inscriptions |
| Numismatics | Study of coins |
| Manuscript | Handwritten text on palm leaf, birch bark, or paper |
| Inscription | Writing engraved on hard surfaces |
| Chronicle | Year-by-year account of events |
| BC/BCE | Before Christ/Before Common Era |
| AD/CE | Anno Domini/Common Era |
| Circa (c.) | Approximately (used for approximate dates) |
| Century | Period of 100 years |
| Millennium | Period of 1000 years |
📝 1.6 Chapter Summary
History is not just a collection of dates but the systematic study of the past based on evidence.
Human past is divided into pre-history (no written records), proto-history (limited/undeciphered writing), and history (deciphered written records).
Time in history is measured using millennia, centuries, decades, and years. BC/BCE refers to years before the traditional birth of Christ, while AD/CE refers to years after.
Archaeological sources include inscriptions (epigraphy), coins (numismatics), monuments, excavated remains, pottery, tools, and artifacts.
Literary sources include indigenous religious texts (Vedas, Puranas, Buddhist and Jain texts), secular literature (Arthashastra, Rajatarangini, dramas), and foreign accounts (Greek, Chinese, Arab writers).
Foreign travelers like Megasthenes, Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, and Al-Biruni provide valuable external perspectives on Indian history.
Historians corroborate multiple sources to build an accurate picture of the past, recognizing the biases and limitations of each source type.
✅ 1.7 Self-Assessment Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
The period for which we have written records is called:
a) Pre-history
b) Proto-history
c) History
d) GeologyWhich century does the year 476 CE belong to?
a) 4th century CE
b) 5th century CE
c) 6th century CE
d) 7th century CEThe study of inscriptions is known as:
a) Numismatics
b) Epigraphy
c) Palaeography
d) ArchaeologyWho among the following was a Chinese traveler who visited India during Harsha's reign?
a) Fa-Hien
b) Hiuen Tsang
c) I-tsing
d) MegasthenesThe Indus Valley Civilization belongs to which category?
a) Pre-history
b) Proto-history
c) History
d) Modern period
Short Answer Questions
Differentiate between BC and BCE. Why do modern historians prefer BCE/CE?
List any four archaeological sources with examples from Indian history.
What is the significance of foreign accounts in writing Indian history?
Explain the concept of "circa" with an example.
How do coins help historians reconstruct the past?
Long Answer Questions
"Sources of history are the foundation on which the edifice of history is built." Elaborate with reference to archaeological and literary sources.
Discuss the importance of foreign travelers' accounts in understanding ancient Indian history. Mention any three travelers and their contributions.
Explain the difference between pre-history, proto-history, and history with suitable examples from the Indian context.
How do historians overcome the challenges of bias and incomplete evidence while reconstructing the past?
📚 1.8 PSTET Practice Corner
Expected Questions for PSTET Examination
| Question Type | Sample Questions |
|---|---|
| Fact-based | Who deciphered the Brahmi script? Which Chinese traveler came during Harsha's period? |
| Conceptual | Differentiate between archaeological and literary sources. Why is the Indus Valley Civilization called proto-historic? |
| Application | If an inscription is found in a temple, what historical information can it provide? |
| Analytical | Why are foreign accounts considered both useful and problematic for writing Indian history? |
Answer Key for MCQs:
c) History
b) 5th century CE (Years 401-500 CE are 5th century)
b) Epigraphy
b) Hiuen Tsang
b) Proto-history (script not deciphered)
🎯 1.9 Teaching Tips for PSTET Aspirants
As a future teacher, here's how you can make this topic engaging for your students:
| Strategy | Activity Idea |
|---|---|
| 🕰️ Timeline Activity | Create a class timeline from 10,000 BCE to 2000 CE with major events |
| 🔍 Source Detective | Show pictures of coins, inscriptions, monuments and ask students what they reveal |
| 📅 Century Game | Practice converting years to centuries (e.g., 1066 CE = 11th century) |
| ✍️ Be a Scribe | Have students write on clay tablets or palm leaves to understand ancient writing |
| 🗣️ Foreign Traveler Role-play | Students pretend to be Megasthenes or Fa-Hien describing India to their homeland |
📖 1.10 Glossary
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Anno Domini | Latin for "in the year of the Lord" |
| Archaeology | Study of past through material remains |
| Chronicle | Historical account of events in chronological order |
| Epigraph | Inscription on stone or metal |
| Excavation | Systematic digging to uncover remains |
| Indigenous | Native or original to a region |
| Manuscript | Handwritten document |
| Numismatics | Study of coins and currency |
| Paleography | Study of ancient writing systems |
| Stratigraphy | Study of soil layers in excavation |
🌟 Key Message for PSTET: Understanding how we know the past is the first step to teaching history effectively. When your students ask, "How do we know this happened?"—you'll have the answers!
📚 Suggested Reading for PSTET Aspirants:
NCERT Class VI History: "What, Where, How and When?"
NCERT Class XI: "Introduction to History"
Romila Thapar: "Interpreting Early India"
R.S. Sharma: "India's Ancient Past"
