Chapter 11: Making a Living
💼 Complete Chapter for PSTET Paper II (Social and Political Life)
🎯 Learning Objectives for PSTET Aspirants
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
Define work and livelihood and understand their significance in human life
Classify economic activities into primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors
Analyze rural livelihoods with special reference to agriculture and Punjab's farming context
Understand diverse urban livelihoods from street vendors to IT professionals
Differentiate between organized and unorganized sectors and their characteristics
Explain the causes and consequences of child labour and legal provisions against it
Evaluate government schemes for livelihood promotion including MGNREGA, PMKVY, and Stand-Up India
Analyze the impact of globalization on employment and migration patterns
Apply pedagogical strategies through surveys, interviews, and projects on local occupations
11.1 Introduction: Work and Livelihood
11.1.1 Meaning of Work and Livelihood
📚 Understanding Work
Work refers to any activity that requires mental or physical effort to achieve a purpose or result. It is a fundamental aspect of human existence that occupies a significant portion of our time and energy.
💡 Simple Definition: Work is any activity that people do to earn money, produce goods, or provide services.
🏡 Understanding Livelihood
Livelihood encompasses not just work but the entire way people make a living—the assets, activities, and capabilities required to secure the necessities of life. It includes:
| Component | Description |
|---|---|
| Income | Money earned from work |
| Assets | Resources like land, tools, skills |
| Social Networks | Family and community support |
| Security | Ability to cope with shocks and stresses |
🌟 Key Insight: Livelihood is sustainable when people can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks (like drought, illness, market changes) while maintaining or enhancing their assets and capabilities.
11.1.2 Types of Occupations: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary
📊 Three Sectors of Economy
Based on the nature of economic activity, occupations are classified into three sectors:
┌──────────────────┐
│ ECONOMY │
└────────┬─────────┘
│
┌────────────────────┼────────────────────┐
▼ ▼ ▼
┌───────────────┐ ┌───────────────┐ ┌───────────────┐
│ PRIMARY │ │ SECONDARY │ │ TERTIARY │
│ SECTOR │ │ SECTOR │ │ SECTOR │
├───────────────┤ ├───────────────┤ ├───────────────┤
│ • Agriculture │ │ Manufacturing │ │ • Trade │
│ • Mining │ │ • Industry │ │ • Transport │
│ • Fishing │ │ • Construction│ │ • Banking │
│ • Forestry │ │ • Factories │ │ • Education │
│ • Animal │ │ • Processing │ │ • Healthcare │
│ Husbandry │ │ │ │ • IT Services │
└───────────────┘ └───────────────┘ └───────────────┘| Sector | Nature | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Sector | Extraction and production of natural resources | Farming, fishing, mining, forestry |
| Secondary Sector | Processing and manufacturing of goods | Factories, construction, food processing |
| Tertiary Sector | Services provided to consumers and businesses | Teaching, banking, transport, healthcare |
11.1.3 Work and Identity
👤 How Work Shapes Who We Are
Work is not just about earning money—it profoundly influences our identity and social standing.
| Aspect | How Work Influences Identity |
|---|---|
| Social Status | Certain occupations carry prestige; others may be stigmatized |
| Self-Worth | Meaningful work contributes to dignity and self-respect |
| Community Membership | Occupations often define one's place in community |
| Family Legacy | Many families have traditional occupations passed down generations |
| Skills and Expertise | People take pride in their craft and knowledge |
💭 Think About This: When we meet someone new, one of the first questions we ask is often "What do you do?" This shows how central work is to identity.
11.2 Sectors of Economy
11.2.1 Primary Sector: Agriculture, Mining, Fishing, Forestry
🌾 Understanding Primary Sector
The primary sector involves activities that directly use natural resources. It is called "primary" because it forms the base for all other economic activities.
| Activity | Description | Examples in India |
|---|---|---|
| Agriculture | Cultivation of crops | Wheat in Punjab, rice in West Bengal |
| Mining | Extraction of minerals | Coal in Jharkhand, iron ore in Odisha |
| Fishing | Catching fish and seafood | Coastal communities in Kerala, Maharashtra |
| Forestry | Harvesting forest products | Timber, bamboo, tendu leaves in MP, Chhattisgarh |
| Animal Husbandry | Rearing animals for products | Dairy in Punjab, Gujarat |
📊 Importance: In India, about 45% of the workforce is still engaged in the primary sector, though its share in GDP has declined to around 16-17% .
11.2.2 Secondary Sector: Manufacturing, Industry, Construction
🏭 Processing and Manufacturing
The secondary sector transforms raw materials from the primary sector into finished goods. It adds value to natural resources.
| Activity | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Manufacturing | Making products from raw materials | Textile mills, automobile factories |
| Industry | Large-scale production | Steel plants, chemical industries |
| Construction | Building infrastructure | Roads, bridges, buildings, dams |
| Food Processing | Converting agricultural produce | Flour mills, rice shellers, fruit canning |
📍 Industrial Clusters in Punjab
| City | Industry |
|---|---|
| Ludhiana | Hosiery, bicycle parts, industrial machinery |
| Jalandhar | Sports goods, hand tools, leather goods |
| Amritsar | Textiles, food processing |
| Mandi Gobindgarh | Steel re-rolling (known as "Steel City") |
11.2.3 Tertiary Sector: Services
💼 The Service Sector
The tertiary sector provides services rather than goods. It has grown tremendously in recent decades.
| Category | Examples |
|---|---|
| Trade | Shops, wholesale, retail |
| Transport | Road, rail, air, water transport |
| Banking and Finance | Banks, insurance, investments |
| Education | Schools, colleges, coaching centers |
| Healthcare | Hospitals, clinics, pharmacies |
| Hospitality | Hotels, restaurants, tourism |
| IT Services | Software development, BPO, KPO |
| Personal Services | Beauty parlors, salons, repair shops |
🌟 Growth: The tertiary sector now contributes the largest share to India's GDP (over 50%) and employs a growing proportion of the workforce.
11.2.4 Interdependence of Sectors
🔗 How Sectors Connect
No sector works in isolation. They are deeply interconnected:
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ INTERDEPENDENCE │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ │
│ PRIMARY ──────────► SECONDARY ──────────► TERTIARY │
│ (Farmer grows (Factory processes (Shop sells │
│ wheat) wheat into flour) flour) │
│ │
│ ▲ │ │
│ └───────────┬────────────────────────┘ │
│ │ │
│ TERTIARY PROVIDES: │
│ • Transport to move goods │
│ • Banking for loans │
│ • Insurance for crops/factories │
│ • Education for workers │
│ • Healthcare for all │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘📊 Examples of Interdependence
| Sector Relationship | Example |
|---|---|
| Primary → Secondary | Cotton grown by farmer (primary) goes to textile mill (secondary) |
| Secondary → Tertiary | Clothes made in factory (secondary) sold in shops (tertiary) |
| Tertiary → Primary | Bank provides loan to farmer (tertiary) for buying seeds |
| All Three | A meal in restaurant uses farm produce (primary), kitchen equipment (secondary), and service staff (tertiary) |
11.3 Rural Livelihoods
11.3.1 Agriculture as Main Occupation
🌾 Backbone of Rural India
Agriculture is the mainstay of rural livelihoods in India. About 65% of the population lives in rural areas, and the majority depends directly or indirectly on agriculture.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Cultivated Area | 155.4 million hectares (52.3% of total area) |
| Cropping Seasons | Kharif (monsoon), Rabi (winter), Zaid (summer) |
| Major Crops | Rice, wheat, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, sugarcane |
11.3.2 Types of Farmers
👨🌾 Farmers are Not a Homogeneous Group
| Type | Land Holding | Characteristics | Challenges |
|---|---|---|---|
| Landless Labourers | No land; work on others' farms | Daily wages; seasonal employment; migrate for work | Lowest income; no job security |
| Small Farmers | Less than 2 hectares | Mostly family labor; subsistence farming; small surplus | Vulnerable to crop failure; limited access to credit |
| Large Farmers | More than 2 hectares | Market-oriented; hire labor; use machinery | Better access to credit, markets, technology |
📊 Distribution: Small and marginal farmers (with less than 2 hectares) constitute about 85% of all farmers but operate only 45% of the cultivated area.
11.3.3 Challenges Faced by Farmers
⚠️ The Agrarian Crisis
| Challenge | Description |
|---|---|
| Debt | Farmers borrow for seeds, fertilizers, equipment; crop failure leads to debt trap |
| Weather Uncertainty | Erratic monsoons, droughts, floods, unseasonal rains destroy crops |
| Market Prices | Farmers often don't get fair prices; price fluctuations |
| Rising Input Costs | Seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, labor costs increasing |
| Water Scarcity | Groundwater depletion; inadequate irrigation |
| Land Fragmentation | Continuous division of land among heirs reduces farm size |
| Climate Change | Unpredictable weather patterns affect agriculture |
📝 Punjab Context: Despite being the "breadbasket of India," Punjab farmers face severe challenges including groundwater depletion, stubble burning issues, and debt.
11.3.4 Other Rural Occupations
🏡 Beyond Farming
Rural livelihoods are diverse and include many non-farm occupations:
| Occupation | Description | Regions |
|---|---|---|
| Animal Husbandry | Dairy farming, goat rearing, poultry | Throughout India |
| Fishing | Inland and marine fishing | Coastal areas, river deltas |
| Handicrafts | Pottery, weaving, carpentry, metalwork | Specific craft clusters |
| Rural Artisans | Blacksmiths, cobblers, tailors | Every village |
| Forest Produce Collection | Tendu leaves, bamboo, honey, medicinal plants | Forest areas |
| Rural Labour | Construction, road work, NREGA work | Throughout India |
11.3.5 Punjab Context: Green Revolution, Wheat-Paddy Cycle, Farm Mechanization
🌾 Punjab's Agricultural Transformation
| Period | Development |
|---|---|
| 1960s-70s | Green Revolution introduced HYV seeds, fertilizers, irrigation |
| 1970s-2000s | Wheat-paddy monoculture established; Punjab becomes India's grain bowl |
| 2000s onwards | Environmental costs emerge—water depletion, soil degradation |
📊 Punjab Agriculture Today
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Cropping Pattern | Wheat (Rabi) and Paddy (Kharif) dominate 85% of cropped area |
| Irrigation | 98% of area irrigated (mostly tube wells) |
| Farm Mechanization | Highest tractor density in India; widespread use of combine harvesters |
| Productivity | Among highest wheat and rice yields in India |
⚠️ Emerging Challenges in Punjab
| Challenge | Impact |
|---|---|
| Groundwater Depletion | Water table falling 0.5-1.0 m annually; 115 of 153 blocks overexploited |
| Soil Degradation | Micronutrient deficiencies; loss of soil organic matter |
| Stubble Burning | 20 million tonnes of paddy straw burnt annually causing severe air pollution |
| Debt | Punjab farmers among most indebted in India |
| Farm Fragmentation | Average land holding size declining |
💡 Key Insight: Punjab's agricultural success story has come with significant environmental costs that now threaten its sustainability.
11.4 Urban Livelihoods
11.4.1 Types of Urban Workers: Regular Salaried, Casual Workers, Self-Employed
🏙️ Diverse Urban Workforce
Urban livelihoods are characterized by tremendous diversity:
| Worker Type | Description | Examples | % of Urban Workforce (approx.) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Regular Salaried | Permanent jobs with fixed monthly salary | Government employees, corporate staff, teachers | 40-45% |
| Casual Workers | Daily wage workers; no job security | Construction laborers, loaders, helpers | 25-30% |
| Self-Employed | Own business or profession | Shopkeepers, vendors, doctors, lawyers | 30-35% |
11.4.2 Factory Workers and Industries
🏭 Industrial Workers
| Type | Working Conditions | Challenges |
|---|---|---|
| Formal Factory Workers | Regular wages, some benefits, regulated hours | Limited numbers; most factories use contract labor |
| Contract Workers | Hired through contractors; no direct employer relationship | Low wages; no benefits; job insecurity |
| Informal Factory Workers | Small workshops, unregistered units | Poor working conditions; no legal protection |
📍 Industrial Cities in Punjab
| City | Industries | Worker Profile |
|---|---|---|
| Ludhiana | Hosiery, cycle parts, machine tools | Mix of skilled and semi-skilled workers |
| Jalandhar | Sports goods, leather, hand tools | Export-oriented; skilled artisans |
| Amritsar | Textiles, food processing | Small-scale units; many informal workers |
11.4.3 Street Vendors and Hawkers
🛒 The Informal Economy's Face
Street vendors are a ubiquitous part of urban India, providing affordable goods and services while earning their livelihood.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Numbers | Estimated 1 crore+ street vendors across India |
| Goods Sold | Vegetables, fruits, clothes, snacks, household items |
| Working Hours | Long hours; often 10-12 hours daily |
| Income | Highly variable; unpredictable |
⚠️ Challenges Faced by Street Vendors
| Challenge | Description |
|---|---|
| Harassment | By police and municipal authorities |
| Eviction | Removal from vending locations |
| No Legal Status | Most operate without licenses |
| Extortion | Pay "hafta" to local goons or officials |
| No Social Security | No pensions, health insurance, etc. |
📝 Legal Protection: The Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014 provides for protection of vendors' rights and regulation of vending zones.
11.4.4 Domestic Workers
🏠 Invisible Workforce
Domestic workers—maids, cooks, drivers, gardeners—form a significant but often invisible part of urban livelihoods.
| Type | Tasks | Working Conditions |
|---|---|---|
| Full-time Live-in | All household chores | Long hours; low pay; vulnerable to abuse |
| Part-time | Cleaning, cooking, childcare | Multiple homes; travel time; uncertain income |
| Specialized | Drivers, cooks, gardeners | Better pay; more skilled |
⚠️ Challenges
| Challenge | Description |
|---|---|
| No Written Contract | Verbal agreements; easy to dismiss |
| Low Wages | Often below minimum wage |
| No Social Security | No PF, ESI, or other benefits |
| Vulnerability | Sexual harassment, physical abuse reported |
| Lack of Recognition | Not considered "workers" under many laws |
11.4.5 Professionals: Doctors, Engineers, Teachers
🎓 The Professional Class
Urban areas host a wide range of professionals who provide essential services.
| Profession | Work Setting | Challenges |
|---|---|---|
| Doctors | Hospitals, clinics, private practice | Long hours; stress; malpractice concerns |
| Engineers | IT companies, manufacturing, construction | Project pressure; skill obsolescence |
| Teachers | Schools, colleges, coaching centers | Low pay in private sector; workload |
| Lawyers | Courts, corporate firms | Long years to establish; competition |
| Chartered Accountants | Firms, self-employed | Intensive work during tax season |
11.4.6 IT Sector and New Economy Jobs
💻 India's IT Revolution
The Information Technology sector has created millions of jobs and transformed urban landscapes.
| Type | Examples | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Software Development | Coding, testing, maintenance | High skills; good pay; global opportunities |
| IT Services | Infrastructure management, support | 24/7 operations; shift work |
| BPO/KPO | Call centers, back-office processing | Night shifts; voice-based; process-driven |
| Tech Startups | New ventures in e-commerce, fintech, edtech | High risk; potential high reward |
📊 Emerging Challenge: AI and Data Work
India has become one of the world's fastest growing hubs for data annotation—the monotonous but essential task of labelling raw data to make it usable for artificial intelligence (AI) models. Estimates suggest that India's annotation market could exceed US$7 million in the next five years and employ over a million workers .
However, as researcher Neha Arya notes, "data workers are the backbone of AI systems, ensuring their functionality, accuracy, and safety—ironically while themselves working in precarious, fragmented, and often invisible conditions" .
11.5 Organized and Unorganized Sector
11.5.1 Organized Sector: Regular Employment, Benefits, Job Security
🏛️ Features of Organized Sector
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Registration | Enterprises registered with government |
| Regular Employment | Permanent or long-term contracts |
| Written Contracts | Clear terms of employment |
| Social Security | PF, pension, gratuity, health insurance |
| Fixed Working Hours | Regulated hours; overtime pay |
| Paid Leave | Earned leave, sick leave, casual leave |
| Job Security | Cannot be dismissed arbitrarily |
| Union Rights | Can form trade unions |
📍 Examples
Government employees
Public sector undertakings
Large private companies
Registered factories
11.5.2 Unorganized Sector: Majority of Workers, Lack of Benefits
📊 The Unorganized Sector Reality
The unorganized sector employs the vast majority of Indian workers—about 90% of the workforce.
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Registration | Not registered with government |
| Employment | Casual, temporary, no contracts |
| Social Security | No PF, pension, insurance |
| Working Hours | Long, irregular, no overtime |
| Leave | No paid leave |
| Job Security | Can be dismissed anytime |
| Union Rights | Difficult to organize |
📍 Examples
Agricultural laborers
Street vendors
Domestic workers
Construction workers
Home-based workers
Small shop assistants
11.5.3 Challenges of Unorganized Sector Workers
⚠️ Precarious Lives
| Challenge | Impact |
|---|---|
| Low Income | Often below minimum wage; irregular |
| No Social Security | Vulnerable to illness, old age, accidents |
| No Job Security | Can lose livelihood anytime |
| Exploitation | No legal protection against unfair treatment |
| No Representation | Cannot bargain collectively |
| Health Hazards | Unsafe working conditions common |
📝 PSTET Focus Point: Understanding the organized-unorganized sector divide is crucial. Most questions on this topic focus on the characteristics and challenges of unorganized sector workers.
11.6 Child Labour
11.6.1 Causes and Consequences
🔍 Why Children Work
| Cause | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Poverty | Families need additional income to survive |
| Debt | Children forced to work to repay family debts |
| Lack of Access to Education | No schools nearby; quality of education poor |
| Social Norms | Traditional acceptance of child work |
| Orphanhood/Vulnerability | Children without family support |
| Migration | Displaced families; children work |
⚠️ Consequences of Child Labour
| Consequence | Impact |
|---|---|
| Loss of Education | Children drop out; cannot develop skills |
| Health Damage | Hazardous work affects physical and mental health |
| Cycle of Poverty | Without education, remain poor as adults |
| Psychological Trauma | Deprived of childhood; abuse common |
| Social Exclusion | No normal social development |
11.6.2 Laws Against Child Labour
📜 Legal Framework
| Law | Provisions |
|---|---|
| Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 | Prohibits employment of children below 14 years in certain occupations |
| Amendment, 2016 | Completely banned employment of children below 14 years |
| Adolescents (14-18 years) | Not permitted in hazardous occupations |
| Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 | Treats child labour as an offence |
| Factories Act, 1948 | Prohibits employment of children below 14 in factories |
⚖️ Penalties
Imprisonment up to 2 years
Fine up to ₹50,000
Both imprisonment and fine
11.6.3 Right to Education and Elimination of Child Labour
📚 RTE as Solution
The Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 made education a fundamental right for children aged 6-14 years. This is the single most important tool for eliminating child labour.
| RTE Provision | Impact on Child Labour |
|---|---|
| Free and compulsory education | Removes cost barrier |
| No discrimination in admission | All children can access school |
| 25% reservation for disadvantaged | Ensures inclusion |
| School infrastructure norms | Quality education |
| No detention till Class VIII | Reduces dropouts |
💡 Key Insight: Education and child labour are inversely related. When children are in school, they cannot be at work. Universal access to quality education is the ultimate solution to child labour.
11.7 Government Schemes for Livelihood
11.7.1 MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act)
📜 Overview
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 is a flagship programme aimed at enhancing livelihood security by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work .
💡 Quote: "MGNREGA is a demand-driven wage employment programme that acts as a fallback option when no better employment opportunities are available" .
✨ Key Features
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Legal Guarantee | Right to 100 days work; not just a scheme |
| Demand-Driven | Employment provided when demanded |
| Wage Payment | Minimum wages fixed by government |
| Women Participation | Priority: at least one-third workers should be women |
| Works | Water conservation, drought proofing, rural connectivity |
| Social Audit | Mandatory social audit for transparency |
📊 Latest Statistics (FY 2024-25)
🏆 Achievements
"In the current FY 2025-26, 99.79% of rural households that demanded work under MGNREGS were successfully offered employment, reflecting the scheme's strong responsiveness" .
📱 Technology Integration
| Initiative | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Aadhaar Based Payment System | Direct benefit transfer; minimized leakages |
| National Mobile Monitoring System | Real-time attendance with geo-tagged photos |
| GeoMGNREGA | Geo-tagging of assets for monitoring |
| JALDOOT App | Measure and record water levels |
| Yuktdhara Portal | Geospatial planning with ISRO-NRSC |
🌟 Impact
"MGNREGA continues to be a cornerstone of rural employment and development in India. With record budgetary support, increasing women's participation, and the integration of technology for transparency and accountability, the scheme not only provides livelihoods but also strengthens rural infrastructure and natural resource management" .
11.7.2 PMKVY (Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana)
📜 Overview
Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) is a skill development initiative that provides free skill training programmes and monetary rewards for obtaining skill certification .
✨ Key Features
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Short-term Training | 150-300 hours courses in various sectors |
| Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) | Certification for existing skills |
| Monetary Rewards | Post-certification rewards as incentive |
| NSQF Alignment | Courses aligned with National Skills Qualification Framework |
| Implementation | National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) |
📊 Performance Analysis
The Standing Committee on Labour noted several issues with PMKVY implementation :
| Metric | Finding |
|---|---|
| Placement Rate (PMKVY 2.0) | Only 23% (21.3 lakh placed out of 91.4 lakh trained) |
| Placement Rate (PMKVY 3.0) | Only 8% (30,599 placed out of 4 lakh candidates) |
| Dropout Rate | About 20% across all versions |
| Fund Utilisation (2021-22) | 72% (₹1,043 crore out of ₹1,438 crore) |
⚠️ Challenges Identified
Industry Alignment: Training courses not aligned with industry requirements
Dropout Factors: Medical issues, distance to centres, accessibility to jobs
State Implementation: Only 15 of 36 states/UTs have functional online management system
11.7.3 Stand-Up India, Start-Up India
💼 Stand-Up India Scheme
Launched on April 5, 2016, the Stand-Up India Scheme aims to provide loans to marginalized sections for setting up greenfield enterprises .
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Target | SC/ST and women entrepreneurs |
| Loan Amount | ₹10 lakh to ₹1 crore |
| Sectors | Manufacturing, services, trading, agriculture allied |
| Interest Rate | Lowest applicable rate of bank (MCLR+3%+Tenor premium) |
| Repayment | 7 years with up to 18 months moratorium |
📊 Achievements (April 2022 - March 2025)
| Category | Number of Accounts | Amount Sanctioned (₹ Cr) |
|---|---|---|
| SC | 30,145 | 6,437.59 |
| ST | 9,625 | 2,037.15 |
| Women (General) | 86,738 | 20,521.41 |
| TOTAL | 1,26,508 | 28,996.15 |
💡 Support Services: Apart from financial support, the scheme provides guidance, training, mentorship, and connects entrepreneurs to skilling centres, EDP centres, and District Industries Centres through the www.standupmitra.in portal .
🚀 Start-Up India
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Launched | 2016 |
| Objective | Foster entrepreneurship, promote innovation |
| Benefits | Tax exemption, easier compliance, funding support |
| Recognition | Over 1 lakh startups recognized |
11.7.4 Punjab Government Initiatives
🌾 Apna Khet, Apna Rozgar Program (Pakistan Punjab)
Note: The following information pertains to Punjab province in Pakistan. For Indian Punjab, similar initiatives exist but specific data not in search results.
In January 2026, the Punjab (Pakistan) cabinet approved the "Apna Khet, Apna Rozgar" programme, under which state-owned agricultural land would be allotted for cultivation to 50,000 individuals, with a focus on the poor and underprivileged .
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Target | 50,000 individuals |
| Objective | Generate livelihoods for the poor; public land no longer serves elite interests |
| Employment Creation | Part of broader goal of 1 million jobs in two years |
🚌 Other Punjab Initiatives (Pakistan)
| Initiative | Detail |
|---|---|
| Green Electric Buses | 1,000 e-buses at tehsil level; cashless payment system |
| Recruitment | 216 constables (Excise), 1,000 (CCD), 980 (Tourism Police) |
| Rural Economy | Horse and cattle shows in all districts |
| Tourism | New tourist destinations besides Murree |
📝 Note for PSTET: For Indian Punjab-specific schemes, teachers should supplement with local government data and recent announcements from Punjab government (Indian side).
11.8 Globalization and Livelihood
11.8.1 Impact on Employment
🌐 What is Globalization?
Globalization refers to the increasing integration of economies through trade, investment, technology, and labor mobility.
📊 Positive Impacts
| Impact | Description |
|---|---|
| New Jobs | IT, BPO, services sector growth |
| Higher Wages | In sectors exposed to global markets |
| Skill Development | Exposure to global standards and practices |
| Entrepreneurship | New opportunities in export-oriented sectors |
⚠️ Negative Impacts
| Impact | Description |
|---|---|
| Job Losses | Competition from imports; small industries unable to compete |
| Informalization | Rise of contract labor; formal jobs decline |
| Precarious Work | Gig economy growth without social security |
| Uneven Growth | Benefits concentrated in certain sectors, regions |
11.8.2 New Opportunities and Challenges
💼 Emerging Sectors
| Sector | Opportunities |
|---|---|
| IT and ITES | Software, BPO, KPO, data annotation |
| E-commerce | Online retail, logistics, delivery |
| Gig Economy | App-based work (Zomato, Swiggy, Uber, Ola) |
| Startups | New ventures across sectors |
📊 Challenges in Job Creation
According to recent analysis :
"Job creation has been unbalanced across economic sectors. The stagnation in manufacturing together with services growth remaining limited to a few segments, has resulted in India having a non-agricultural workforce that is smaller than countries with similar GDP per capita."
"Growth in real wages and worker productivity have not kept pace with GDP growth. While workers in the formal sector earn more, on average, than those in the informal sector, the growth in wages has been lower within high-wage, high-productivity jobs."
"The mismatch between qualification-based aspirations and skill-based job market realities manifests in open unemployment among highly educated youth. In FY2023-24, two-fifths of 15-24-year-olds with at least a graduate degree were out of work" .
11.8.3 Migration for Work
🚶 Types of Migration
| Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Rural to Urban | Moving to cities for better opportunities | Farm laborers to construction sites |
| Seasonal | Temporary migration for specific seasons | Agricultural laborers during harvest |
| International | Moving abroad for work | Gulf countries, North America, Europe |
| Circular | Repeated cycles of migration and return | Construction workers |
🌏 India's Emigration Scenario
According to the Observer Research Foundation :
"Between 2011 and 2024, some 2 million Indian nationals emigrated and gave up their citizenship."
"According to the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), as of 2025, 15.85 million Indians lived abroad and worked across various skill levels."
📊 Student Migration by State (2021)
Students from Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, and Gujarat make up the largest share of student migrants.
| State | Student Migrants |
|---|---|
| Andhra Pradesh | Highest |
| Maharashtra | Second highest |
| Punjab | Among top states |
| Gujarat | Among top states |
"In 2025, 1.8 million Indian students were pursuing education in foreign countries, predominantly in the Global North but also in countries in Central and Southeast Asia" .
📈 Push and Pull Factors
| Pull Factors (Abroad) | Push Factors (India) |
|---|---|
| Higher wages | Unemployment |
| Better living conditions | Crumbling infrastructure |
| Stronger institutions | Intense competition for education and jobs |
| Better labour market opportunities | Corruption |
| Social and economic upward mobility | Social or interpersonal preferences |
💰 Costs of Migration
"In 2024 alone, Indian nationals lost nearly INR 1,360 million (US$14.96 million) in non-refundable fees due to over 165,000 rejected Schengen visa applications" .
⚖️ Benefits and Drawbacks of Emigration
| Benefits | Drawbacks |
|---|---|
| Strengthens India's global diaspora and soft power | Loss of skilled talent (brain drain) |
| Boosts remittance inflows | Increased dependence on remittances |
| Fosters skill acquisition and entrepreneurship | Higher risks of labour exploitation |
| Eases pressures on domestic labour market | Social strains (family separation) |
| Potential decline in foreign wages due to surplus immigrant labour |
11.9 Pedagogical Focus: Teaching About Livelihoods
🧒 Understanding the Learner (Classes VI-VIII)
Upper primary students:
Are aware of different occupations in their family and neighborhood
Can conduct simple surveys and interviews
Benefit from connecting classroom learning to real-life work
Need to develop respect for all types of work
Can reflect on their own aspirations and future careers
📋 Survey: "What do people in our neighborhood do?"
Activity: Occupation Survey
| Step | Instructions |
|---|---|
| 1. Prepare | Design simple survey form with questions |
| 2. Identify | List 10-15 households in neighborhood |
| 3. Survey | Interview family members about their work |
| 4. Record | Note occupation, sector, work conditions |
| 5. Analyze | Categorize occupations into primary/secondary/tertiary |
| 6. Present | Share findings with class |
📝 Sample Survey Form
| Question | Response |
|---|---|
| Name of person | |
| Age | |
| What work do you do? | |
| Where do you work? | |
| Is this work regular or daily wage? | |
| How many hours do you work daily? | |
| Do you get any benefits (leave, PF, etc.)? | |
| What do you like about your work? | |
| What challenges do you face? |
👤 Interview with a Worker
Activity: Worker Interview Project
| Step | Instructions |
|---|---|
| 1. Choose | Select a worker (farmer, vendor, professional, domestic worker) |
| 2. Prepare | Develop interview questions |
| 3. Interview | Record responses (with permission) |
| 4. Transcribe | Write down key points |
| 5. Report | Prepare a report with photo (if allowed) |
| 6. Present | Share learning with class |
🎯 Sample Interview Questions
| Category | Questions |
|---|---|
| About the Work | What does a typical day look like? How long have you been doing this? |
| Skills | What skills are needed for this work? How did you learn them? |
| Income | Is income regular? Does it vary by season? |
| Challenges | What difficulties do you face? How do you cope? |
| Satisfaction | What do you like most about your work? |
| Advice | What advice would you give to young people? |
📊 Project on "Occupations in Punjab"
Activity: Punjab Occupation Profile
| Task | Description |
|---|---|
| 1. Research | Collect information on major occupations in Punjab |
| 2. Categories | Classify into primary, secondary, tertiary |
| 3. Map | Show on Punjab map where different occupations are concentrated |
| 4. Profile | Choose 5 occupations; write detailed profile |
| 5. Interview | If possible, interview someone in each occupation |
| 6. Present | Create chart/booklet/presentation |
🌾 Punjab Occupation Focus Areas
| Region | Primary Occupations | Secondary/Tertiary |
|---|---|---|
| Majha (Amritsar, Gurdaspur) | Wheat-paddy farming, dairying | Food processing, tourism |
| Doaba (Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur) | Agriculture, dairying | Sports goods, hand tools, NRI remittances |
| Malwa (Ludhiana, Patiala, Bathinda) | Cotton, wheat-paddy | Hosiery, cycle parts, steel |
| Kandi Region (Shivalik hills) | Maize, rain-fed farming | Forestry, animal husbandry |
💬 Discussion on "Dream Jobs and Reality"
Activity: Career Aspirations Discussion
| Question | Purpose |
|---|---|
| "What do you want to be when you grow up?" | Surface aspirations |
| "Why do you want that job?" | Understand motivations (money, prestige, interest, family) |
| "What skills are needed for that job?" | Connect to education and training |
| "Is that job available in our area?" | Connect to local reality |
| "Would you have to move to another city?" | Introduce migration concept |
| "What if you cannot get that job? What are alternatives?" | Realistic career planning |
🌟 Discussion Points
| Topic | Discussion Questions |
|---|---|
| Respect for All Work | Is a doctor's work more important than a sweeper's? Why? |
| Gender and Work | Are some jobs considered "for men" or "for women"? Why? |
| Education and Jobs | Does more education always mean a better job? |
| Family Occupation | Would you like to do the same work as your parents? Why? |
| Dream vs. Reality | What if your dream job doesn't exist in your town? |
📝 Sample Lesson Plan: "Understanding Livelihoods"
| Component | Description |
|---|---|
| Topic | Making a Living: Occupations and Livelihoods |
| Class | VI-VII |
| Duration | 4 class periods |
| Learning Objectives | Students will: (1) Identify different types of occupations (2) Classify work into primary/secondary/tertiary sectors (3) Understand rural and urban livelihoods (4) Appreciate the dignity of all work |
| Day 1: Introduction | Discuss: "What is work? Why do people work?" Introduce three sectors with examples |
| Day 2: Rural Livelihoods | Focus on agriculture and Punjab farming; discuss farmer challenges |
| Day 3: Urban Livelihoods | Explore diverse city occupations; street vendors to IT professionals |
| Day 4: Project Work | Conduct neighborhood survey; present findings |
| Assessment | Survey report, participation in discussions, classification worksheet |
📝 Chapter Summary: Key Points for PSTET Revision
🔑 Work and Livelihood
| Concept | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Work | Activity requiring effort to achieve purpose |
| Livelihood | Entire way of making a living (income, assets, capabilities, security) |
🔑 Three Sectors of Economy
| Sector | Nature | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Primary | Extraction from nature | Farming, mining, fishing |
| Secondary | Processing/manufacturing | Factories, construction |
| Tertiary | Services | Trade, transport, banking, IT |
🔑 Rural Livelihoods
| Type | Characteristics | Punjab Context |
|---|---|---|
| Landless Labourers | Daily wages; seasonal | Farm labourers |
| Small Farmers | <2 ha; subsistence | Majority of farmers |
| Large Farmers | >2 ha; market-oriented | Commercial farming |
🔑 Punjab Agriculture
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Cropping Pattern | Wheat-paddy cycle (85% area) |
| Irrigation | 98% irrigated; tube wells dominant |
| Mechanization | Highest tractor density in India |
| Challenges | Groundwater depletion, stubble burning, debt |
🔑 Urban Livelihoods
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Regular Salaried | Government, corporate |
| Casual Workers | Construction, loading |
| Self-Employed | Shopkeepers, vendors, professionals |
🔑 Organized vs. Unorganized Sector
| Feature | Organized | Unorganized |
|---|---|---|
| Registration | Yes | No |
| Job Security | Yes | No |
| Social Security | PF, pension, insurance | None |
| Workforce | ~10% | ~90% |
🔑 Government Schemes
🔑 Key Statistics
📝 Practice Questions for PSTET Preparation
Multiple Choice Questions
Which sector involves activities that directly use natural resources?
a) Primary sector
b) Secondary sector
c) Tertiary sector
d) Quaternary sectorWhat percentage of India's workforce is engaged in the unorganized sector?
a) About 50%
b) About 70%
c) About 90%
d) About 30%Under MGNREGA, how many days of guaranteed wage employment are provided per year?
a) 50 days
b) 75 days
c) 100 days
d) 120 daysWhat was the budget allocation for MGNREGA in FY 2025-26?
a) ₹33,000 crore
b) ₹45,783 crore
c) ₹86,000 crore
d) ₹1,00,000 croreWhich of the following is a challenge faced by street vendors?
a) High wages
b) Job security
c) Harassment by authorities
d) Regular promotionsPMKVY stands for:
a) Pradhan Mantri Kisan Vikas Yojana
b) Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana
c) Pradhan Mantri Kalyan Vikas Yojana
d) Pradhan Mantri Krishi Vikas YojanaAs of 2025, how many Indians lived abroad according to MEA?
a) 5.85 million
b) 10.85 million
c) 15.85 million
d) 20.85 millionWhat percentage of young graduates (15-24) were unemployed in FY2023-24?
a) One-fifth
b) One-fourth
c) One-third
d) Two-fifthsThe Stand-Up India Scheme provides loans between:
a) ₹1 lakh to ₹5 lakh
b) ₹5 lakh to ₹10 lakh
c) ₹10 lakh to ₹1 crore
d) ₹1 crore to ₹5 croreWhich state is among the largest sources of student migrants from India?
a) Bihar
b) Punjab
c) Odisha
d) Madhya Pradesh
Short Answer Questions
Differentiate between primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors with two examples each.
What are the main challenges faced by farmers in India?
Explain the difference between organized and unorganized sectors.
What is MGNREGA? Mention any three of its key features.
List any four causes of child labour.
Long Answer Questions
Discuss the various types of rural livelihoods in India with special reference to Punjab's agricultural context.
Explain the challenges faced by unorganized sector workers. What government schemes address these challenges?
Describe the impact of globalization on employment in India with reference to both opportunities and challenges.
Compare and contrast rural and urban livelihoods in India.
As a teacher, how would you help students understand the diversity of occupations in their community? Describe any two pedagogical activities.
✅ Chapter Completion Checklist
Before moving to Chapter 12, ensure you can:
Define work and livelihood
Explain three sectors of economy with examples
Describe types of farmers (landless, small, large)
List challenges faced by farmers
Explain Punjab's wheat-paddy cycle and its challenges
Describe types of urban workers
Differentiate organized and unorganized sectors
Explain causes and consequences of child labour
Plan a neighborhood occupation survey
Design a worker interview project
🔗 Online Resources for Further Learning
| Resource | Description | Link/How to Find |
|---|---|---|
| Ministry of Rural Development | MGNREGA updates | rural.nic.in |
| Ministry of Skill Development | PMKVY information | msde.gov.in |
| Stand-Up India Portal | Scheme details | standupmitra.in |
| PRS India | Legislative reports on schemes | prsindia.org |
| PIB Press Releases | Government scheme updates | pib.gov.in |
| NCERT Social and Political Life (Class VII) | Chapter on Livelihoods | ncert.nic.in |
🎓 Prepared for PSTET Aspirants
This chapter provides comprehensive coverage of "Making a Living" as per PSTET Paper II syllabus. Understanding livelihoods—their diversity, challenges, and the role of government schemes—is essential for both the exam and your future teaching. The Punjab-specific context of agriculture and the latest statistics on MGNREGA, Stand-Up India, and migration patterns will help you connect concepts to contemporary reality. Use the pedagogical activities to help students appreciate the dignity of all work and make informed choices about their own futures.
