Ch 20: The Nationalist Movement (1885-1947)

 

Chapter 20: The Nationalist Movement (1885-1947)

🎯 Focus: A chronological narrative of the struggle for freedom.
🗺️ Theme: Understanding how a disparate group of educated Indians forged a mass movement that ultimately compelled the British to leave India, and the complex circumstances that led to the nation's partition.

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✨ Introduction: The Birth of a Nation

Imagine a country of millions, divided by language, caste, and religion, yet united by a single dream: freedom. The Indian National Movement was not a single event but a long, arduous journey spanning over six decades. It began with a few dozen men meeting in Bombay in 1885 and ended with the midnight tryst with destiny on 15 August 1947. Along the way, the movement transformed from polite petitions to mass civil disobedience, from elite concerns to peasant struggles, and from constitutional demands to cries of "Do or Die" .

For a PSTET teacher, this chapter is the culmination of the entire history syllabus. It weaves together the threads of colonial exploitation, socio-religious reform, and emerging political consciousness into the grand narrative of India's freedom struggle. This chapter will trace that journey through three distinct phases: the early Moderates who laid the foundation, the assertive Extremists who demanded Swaraj, and the Gandhian era that transformed the movement into a mass struggle. It will conclude with the tragic climax—the achievement of freedom alongside the pain of Partition.

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📜 Section 1: The Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885) and the Moderate Phase (1885-1905)

The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in December 1885 at Bombay. A retired British civil servant, A.O. Hume, played a key role in its formation, along with Indian leaders like W.C. Bonnerjee, who became its first President .

1.1. The Early Nationalists (The Moderates)

The first phase of the Congress (1885-1905) was led by a group known as the Early Nationalists or Moderates . They were drawn from the educated middle class—lawyers, teachers, journalists, and officials—many of whom were educated in England.

Aspect	Details
🌍 Key Leaders	Dadabhai Naoroji (known as the "Grand Old Man of India"), Gopal Krishna Gokhale (Gandhi's political guru), Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and W.C. Bonnerjee .
🤝 Core Beliefs	They had full faith in the British sense of justice and fair play. They believed that British rule was a boon for India and that the connection with England was in the interests of both countries. Their goal was not immediate independence but self-government (Swaraj) within the British Empire, like the self-governing colonies in Canada and Australia .
📝 Methods	Their methods were those of constitutional agitation. They operated through three Ps: Petition, Prayer, and Protest. They: • Organized annual sessions to pass resolutions. • Drafted petitions and memorandums to submit to the government. • Sent deputations of Indian leaders to England to influence British public opinion. • Founded a British Committee of the INC in London and a journal called India in 1890 .
💰 Economic Critique	The Moderates made a significant contribution by exposing the true nature of British rule. Dadabhai Naoroji, in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, propounded the "Drain of Wealth" theory—the idea that Britain was systematically draining India's wealth through unfair trade policies, high home charges, and remittances .
📋 Key Demands	• Constitutional Reforms: Expansion of legislative councils, Indian representation in the Viceroy's executive council, and simultaneous ICS exams in India and England . • Administrative Reforms: Separation of executive and judiciary, reduction of military expenditure, and spread of primary education . • Economic Reforms: Reduction of land revenue, protection of Indian industries, and repeal of the Arms Act .
✅ Achievements	Despite limited success, the Moderates: • Created a national awakening and made Indians conscious of their common political and economic interests. • Trained people in modern politics and popularized ideas of democracy, civil liberties, and nationalism . • Forced the government to appoint the Welby Commission on Indian expenditure (1895) and pass the Indian Councils Act of 1892, which increased Indian representation in legislative councils .
❌ Criticism	The younger generation grew impatient with the Moderates' slow progress. They were criticized for being "mendicants" who begged for favors rather than demanding their rights. Their influence remained limited to the urban educated classes and did not reach the masses .

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⚡ Section 2: The Rise of Extremism (1905-1918)

The failure of the Moderates to achieve any significant concessions, combined with growing disillusionment with British rule, led to the rise of a more assertive group within the Congress.

2.1. Causes for the Rise of Extremism

Cause	Description
📉 Reaction to Moderate Failures	The Moderates' patient, constitutional methods had yielded little. The younger generation felt that only direct action could force the British to concede Indian demands .
🌍 International Influences	The defeat of the Italian army by Ethiopia (1896) and the victory of Japan over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1905) shattered the myth of European invincibility and inspired Asian nationalism .
😠 Repressive Policies of Curzon	Lord Curzon's reactionary policies—including the Calcutta Corporation Act (1899) which reduced Indian representation, the Universities Act (1904) which increased official control, and his insulting remarks about Indian character—fuelled nationalist anger.
🗺️ Partition of Bengal (1905)	This was the immediate and most important cause. On 16 October 1905, Curzon partitioned Bengal into two provinces: Western Bengal (with a Hindu majority) and Eastern Bengal and Assam (with a Muslim majority). The official reason was administrative efficiency, but the real motive was "divide and rule"—to weaken the nationalist movement by creating a Hindu-Muslim divide.

2.2. The Swadeshi Movement and the Extremist Leaders

The partition of Bengal sparked a massive popular movement. The Swadeshi Movement (1905-1908) involved the boycott of British goods and the promotion of indigenous products.

Aspect	Details
🦁 The Extremist Trio: Lal-Bal-Pal	The most prominent Extremist leaders were Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab), Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra), and Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal), known collectively as Lal-Bal-Pal .
🌿 Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920)	Known as "Lokmanya" (Beloved of the People), Tilak was the foremost Extremist leader. He believed in mass mobilization and gave the famous slogan: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it!" He organized Ganpati and Shivaji festivals to reach the masses. He was tried for sedition and exiled to Mandalay (Burma) for six years (1908-14) .
🦁 Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928)	Known as the "Lion of Punjab" (Punjab Kesari) , he founded the Punjab National Bank and the Indian Home Rule League in America. He died from injuries sustained during a lathi charge while leading a protest against the Simon Commission in 1928 .
📰 Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1932)	Known as the "Father of Revolutionary Thoughts" in India, he was a powerful orator and journalist who advocated for Swadeshi, boycott, and national education. He wrote for several newspapers, including the New India .
📋 The 1906 Calcutta Session	The 1906 Congress session at Calcutta, presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, adopted four key resolutions: Swaraj (Self-Government), Swadeshi, Boycott, and National Education .
💔 Surat Split (1907)	The growing differences between the Moderates and Extremists led to a dramatic split at the Surat session (1907). The Extremists wanted to extend the Swadeshi movement beyond Bengal and include a boycott of all government institutions. The Moderates, led by Gokhale and Mehta, opposed this. The session descended into chaos, and the two groups parted ways .

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🕊️ Section 3: The Gandhian Era (1919-1947)

The arrival of Mahatma Gandhi on the political scene transformed the Indian National Movement. He brought with him a new weapon: Satyagraha (truth force or non-violent resistance) and a new method: mass mobilization.

3.1. Early Mass Movements (1917-1918)

Gandhi's first experiments with Satyagraha in India were local struggles that tested his methods and built his leadership.

Movement	Year	Details
🌾 Champaran Satyagraha	1917	Gandhi's first civil disobedience movement in India. He championed the cause of indigo farmers in Bihar who were forced by European planters to grow indigo under the oppressive tinkathia system. Gandhi, urged by local farmer Rajkumar Shukla, conducted a meticulous inquiry, recorded peasant testimonies, and was ordered to leave the district. His refusal to obey and his willingness to go to jail forced the government to appoint a commission of inquiry, which included Gandhi, and ultimately led to the abolition of the tinkathia system. This was a resounding victory and established Gandhi's leadership .
💧 Kheda Satyagraha	1918	In Kheda district, Gujarat, crops had failed, and peasants were unable to pay the land revenue. Gandhi, along with Vallabhbhai Patel, led a movement demanding remission of taxes. The peasants remained united and non-violent, and the government eventually suspended the revenue collection .
🏭 Ahmedabad Mill Strike	1918	Gandhi supported the mill workers of Ahmedabad in their demand for higher wages. He used the weapon of a fast unto death to strengthen the workers' resolve and pressure the mill owners, leading to a negotiated settlement .

3.2. The Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

Event	Details
📜 Rowlatt Act (1919)	In March 1919, the British government passed the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, popularly known as the Rowlatt Act. It gave the government sweeping powers to arrest and imprison any person without trial for up to two years. It also severely restricted press freedom. Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal (strike) on 6 April 1919 to protest this "Black Act" .
🩸 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919)	The protest was particularly intense in Punjab. On 13 April 1919, a large crowd, unaware that martial law had been imposed banning public gatherings, assembled at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar to peacefully protest the arrest of their leaders and to celebrate the Baisakhi festival. The Bagh was a walled garden with narrow exits. Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer arrived with 50 soldiers, blocked the only exit, and without warning, ordered his troops to open fire on the unarmed crowd. They fired for about 10-15 minutes until their ammunition ran out. Official estimates put the death toll at 379, but Indian sources believe it was closer to 1,000. Dyer later testified that he had come "to punish them" and would have used machine guns if the entrance had allowed .
🌍 Impact	The massacre was a turning point. It shattered any lingering faith in British justice and convinced millions of Indians that Purna Swaraj (complete independence) was the only goal. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest. Gandhi, who had been a loyal supporter of the British war effort, was also transformed.

3.3. Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Movement (1920-22)

Aspect	Details
🤝 The Twin Issues	The Non-Cooperation Movement was launched by Gandhi in 1920, combining two major issues: 1. Khilafat Issue: After World War I, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) was dismembered, and the position of the Caliph (Khalifa), the spiritual head of Sunni Muslims, was threatened. Indian Muslims, led by the Ali brothers (Shaukat and Muhammad Ali), started the Khilafat Movement to pressure the British to protect the Caliphate. Gandhi saw this as an opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity and lent his support . 2. Punjab Wrongs: The Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the subsequent martial law atrocities in Punjab remained unpunished and unaddressed.
📝 Programme	The movement, adopted at the Calcutta (September 1920) and Nagpur (December 1920) Congress sessions, involved: • Surrender of titles and honorary offices. • Boycott of government schools, colleges, and law courts. • Boycott of foreign goods and promotion of khadi and hand-spinning. • Refusal to pay taxes (as a last resort) .
⚡ Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)	The movement gained tremendous momentum. But on 5 February 1922, in the village of Chauri Chaura (Uttar Pradesh), a violent mob set fire to a police station, killing 22 policemen. Gandhi, a firm believer in non-violence, was deeply distressed. Despite widespread opposition, he unilaterally called off the movement in March 1922. He was arrested shortly after and imprisoned for six years .
📊 Significance	Despite its abrupt end, the movement was a watershed. It was the first mass-based, all-India movement. It brought millions of Indians, including peasants and workers, into the nationalist fold.

3.4. Simon Commission and the Nehru Report (1927-28)

Event	Details
📋 Simon Commission (1927)	The British government appointed a commission under Sir John Simon to review the working of the Government of India Act 1919 and propose further reforms. The commission had no Indian members. When it arrived in India in 1928, it was greeted with black flags and the slogan "Simon Go Back." In Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was brutally lathi-charged while leading a protest and died of his injuries .
📝 Nehru Report (1928)	In response to the challenge by Lord Birkenhead (Secretary of State for India) that Indians should produce a constitution that had broad agreement, an All-Parties Conference was convened, and a committee under Motilal Nehru (with Jawaharlal Nehru as secretary) drafted the Nehru Report. It demanded Dominion Status for India, similar to Canada and Australia. It rejected separate electorates but proposed reservation of seats for minorities in proportion to their population. The report was a major attempt to frame a constitution for India by Indians .
⚡ Jinnah's Fourteen Points (1929)	The Muslim League, under Muhammad Ali Jinnah, rejected the Nehru Report. Jinnah formulated his Fourteen Points in 1929, which demanded, among other things, a federal system with residual powers to the provinces, separate electorates for Muslims, and one-third representation for Muslims in the central legislature. This marked a growing divergence between the Congress and the Muslim League .

3.5. Civil Disobedience Movement and the Dandi March (1930)

Event	Details
🧂 Lahore Session & Purna Swaraj (1929)	The Congress session at Lahore in December 1929, presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, passed the historic resolution for Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence). It was declared that 26 January 1930 would be celebrated as the first Independence Day .
🚶 The Dandi March (12 March - 6 April 1930)	To launch the Civil Disobedience Movement, Gandhi chose the issue of the salt tax, a tax that affected every Indian. On 12 March 1930, he began his famous march from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal village of Dandi, accompanied by 78 chosen followers. They walked about 240 miles over 24 days, attracting thousands along the way. On 6 April, Gandhi broke the salt law by picking up a handful of salt from the seashore. This was a signal for millions across India to manufacture salt illegally and defy the government .
📈 Course of the Movement	The movement spread like wildfire. People boycotted foreign cloth, refused to pay taxes (especially in Gujarat and the North-West Frontier Province), and broke forest laws. Thousands, including women in large numbers, were arrested and imprisoned.
🤝 Gandhi-Irwin Pact & Round Table Conferences	After nearly a year of struggle, Gandhi entered into negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin, leading to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931) . The government agreed to release political prisoners and permit peaceful picketing of foreign cloth, while the Congress agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement and participate in the Second Round Table Conference in London. Gandhi attended the conference but returned empty-handed, as the focus was on minority representation rather than independence. The movement was revived but gradually fizzled out .

3.6. The Poona Pact (1932)

Event	Details
👨‍⚖️ Communal Award & Fast unto Death	In August 1932, British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award, which provided for separate electorates for the "Depressed Classes" (Dalits). Gandhi, who was in prison, saw this as an attempt to divide Hindu society and announced a fast unto death in protest.
🤝 The Pact	This created immense pressure. Prolonged negotiations between Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar led to the Poona Pact (September 1932). It replaced separate electorates with reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in provincial legislatures from a common Hindu electorate. Gandhi broke his fast. While the pact averted a split, it was a compromise for both leaders.

3.7. Government of India Act, 1935

This was a lengthy and complex act that provided for:

• Provincial Autonomy: Elected governments in provinces.

• A Federal System (at the centre), though this was never implemented.

• Dyarchy at the Centre.

• Separate Electorates and representation for various communities.
  The Congress contested the 1937 provincial elections and formed governments in most provinces.

3.8. Quit India Movement (1942)

Aspect	Details
🌍 World War II Context	In 1939, the Viceroy declared India at war with Germany without consulting Indian leaders. The Congress ministries resigned in protest. The British rejection of Congress's demand for immediate independence after the war (the Cripps Mission, 1942, offered only Dominion Status after the war with the option to secede, which was rejected) led to the final, most intense struggle.
🔥 "Do or Die"	On 8 August 1942, the Congress met at Bombay and passed the Quit India Resolution, demanding an immediate end to British rule. Gandhi gave the famous call: "Do or Die" (Karo ya Maro). Within hours, all major leaders, including Gandhi, Nehru, and Patel, were arrested .
⚔️ Mass Uprising	With the leaders in jail, the movement became decentralized and turned violent in many places. Students, workers, and peasants attacked police stations, post offices, and railway stations. Underground activities and parallel governments were set up in some areas (like in Ballia and Satara). The British responded with brutal force, killing and arresting thousands.
🪖 The Indian National Army (INA)	Subhas Chandra Bose, who had escaped from house arrest in 1941, went to Germany and then to Japan. He took command of the Indian National Army (INA) , formed from Indian prisoners of war and civilians in Southeast Asia. His famous slogans were "Jai Hind" and "Delhi Chalo" (On to Delhi). He formed the Azad Hind Government and declared war on Britain. The INA fought alongside the Japanese army in Imphal and Kohima but was ultimately defeated. However, the trials of INA officers at the Red Fort in 1945 sparked massive sympathy and unrest across India, shaking the foundations of the British Indian Army.

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🏁 Section 4: Towards Freedom and Partition (1945-1947)

The end of World War II left Britain financially exhausted and unable to hold onto India. The new Labour government under Clement Attlee was committed to granting India independence. But the path was complicated by the Muslim League's demand for a separate nation, Pakistan.

4.1. Key Events Leading to Partition

Event	Details
🛑 INA Trials and RIN Mutiny (1945-46)	The trial of captured INA officers at the Red Fort sparked massive public outrage. In February 1946, the Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny broke out in Bombay and spread to Karachi and Madras. These events made it clear that the loyalty of the armed forces could no longer be taken for granted, hastening the British decision to leave.
🤝 Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)	A British cabinet mission visited India to propose a plan for the transfer of power. It proposed a three-tier federal structure with a weak centre, grouping of provinces into sections, and autonomy for provinces. Both Congress and the Muslim League initially accepted, but then rejected it over differing interpretations.
⚔️ Direct Action Day (16 August 1946)	The Muslim League, fearing Congress dominance, withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan and called for "Direct Action Day" to achieve Pakistan. The result was horrific communal riots, especially in Calcutta, where thousands were killed. This unleashed a cycle of violence that spread across North India.
🗓️ Mountbatten Plan (3 June Plan) (1947)	Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy, arrived with a mandate to transfer power by June 1948. However, seeing the escalating violence, he advanced the date. The 3 June Plan outlined the actual mechanism for partition. It proposed the division of India into two dominions—India and Pakistan—based on Muslim-majority areas.
🇮🇳 Indian Independence Act, 1947	Passed by the British Parliament in July 1947, it declared that from 15 August 1947, India and Pakistan would become independent dominions. It provided for the end of British rule, the partition of Bengal and Punjab, and the right of princely states to accede to either dominion.

4.2. The Tragedy of Partition

The joy of independence was overshadowed by the tragedy of partition. Millions of people—Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan, Muslims from India—were uprooted from their homes and forced to migrate. Massive communal violence led to the deaths of an estimated 500,000 to 1 million people. Gandhi spent his last days in Noakhali and Calcutta, trying to restore peace. He was assassinated on 30 January 1948 by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist who held him responsible for the partition.

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🌟 Chapter Summary: Key Takeaways for PSTET

📜 Phases of the National Movement

Phase	Period	Key Leaders	Methods/Programmes
Moderate Phase	1885-1905	Dadabhai Naoroji, G.K. Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta	Constitutional agitation, petitions, prayers, protests; economic critique (Drain Theory) .
Extremist Phase	1905-1918	Lal-Bal-Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal)	Swadeshi, boycott, national education; demand for Swaraj; Surat Split (1907) .
Gandhian Era	1919-1947	Mahatma Gandhi, J.L. Nehru, S.C. Bose, Vallabhbhai Patel	Mass movements, non-violent Satyagraha, civil disobedience.

⚔️ Major Movements and Events

Event	Year	Key Details
Champaran Satyagraha	1917	First Satyagraha; for indigo farmers .
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre	1919	General Dyer fired on unarmed crowd; turning point .
Non-Cooperation Movement	1920-22	First mass movement; Khilafat issue; Chauri Chaura .
Simon Commission & Nehru Report	1927-28	"Simon Go Back"; Motilal Nehru's Dominion Status proposal .
Purna Swaraj & Dandi March	1929-30	Demand for complete independence; Salt Satyagraha .
Poona Pact	1932	Between Gandhi and Ambedkar; reserved seats for Dalits.
Quit India Movement	1942	"Do or Die"; mass uprising; leaders arrested .
INA & Subhas Chandra Bose	1943-45	"Jai Hind," "Delhi Chalo"; fought with Japan.
Cabinet Mission & Direct Action	1946	Failed plan; communal violence begins.
Mountbatten Plan & Independence	1947	3 June Plan; Indian Independence Act; Partition.

👑 Key Leaders and Their Contributions

Leader	Key Contribution
Dadabhai Naoroji	"Drain of Wealth" theory; first Indian to demand Swaraj .
Bal Gangadhar Tilak	"Swaraj is my birthright"; extremist leader .
Mahatma Gandhi	Satyagraha, Champaran, Non-Cooperation, Dandi March, Quit India .
Jawaharlal Nehru	Purna Swaraj resolution; modern socialist vision .
Subhas Chandra Bose	INA; Azad Hind Government; militant nationalism.
Vallabhbhai Patel	Kheda Satyagraha; integration of princely states.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah	Muslim League leader; demand for Pakistan; Fourteen Points .

🌟 Key Takeaway for PSTET: The Indian National Movement was a long and complex struggle that evolved from moderate constitutionalism to mass-based civil disobedience. It was shaped by diverse ideologies—from the economic critique of the Moderates to the militant nationalism of the Extremists, and finally the moral force of Gandhian Satyagraha. The movement succeeded in forcing the British to leave, but it also culminated in the tragic partition of the country. The legacy of this struggle—democracy, secularism, and social justice—continues to define the Indian republic.