Chapter 3: Local Government
🏘️ Complete Chapter for PSTET Paper II (Social and Political Life)
🎯 Learning Objectives for PSTET Aspirants
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
Define local self-government and explain its importance in a democracy
Describe the historical evolution of local governance in India
Explain the three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj system
Differentiate between rural and urban local bodies with their composition and functions
Analyze the key provisions of 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments
Understand reservation policies for women and marginalized groups
Examine the structure of local government in Punjab with examples
Apply pedagogical strategies through field visits, projects, and interactive activities
3.1 Introduction to Local Self-Government
3.1.1 Meaning and Definition
📚 What is Local Self-Government?
Local self-government refers to the management of local affairs by local bodies elected by the people of that locality. It is the government at the village, town, or city level that deals with matters of local importance.
💡 Definition: "Local self-government is government by popularly elected bodies charged with administrative and executive duties in matters concerning the inhabitants of a particular locality."
🔑 Key Elements of Local Self-Government
| Element | Description |
|---|---|
| Local Area | Defined geographical jurisdiction (village, block, district, town, city) |
| Elected Body | Representatives chosen by local people |
| Local Functions | Matters of local importance (sanitation, water supply, roads) |
| Financial Powers | Authority to levy taxes and collect revenue |
| State Supervision | Works under overall guidance of state government |
3.1.2 Importance of Local Government: Grassroots Democracy
🌱 Why Local Government Matters
Local government is often called "grassroots democracy" because it brings democracy to the lowest level where people can directly participate.
| Importance | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Democratic Participation | People directly elect their representatives and participate in decision-making |
| Proximity to People | Local representatives understand local problems better than distant officials |
| Efficient Service Delivery | Local issues (garbage, water, street lights) are best handled locally |
| Political Education | Citizens learn democratic processes through participation |
| Responsiveness | Local bodies can respond quickly to emergencies and local needs |
| Accountability | Representatives are directly answerable to local voters |
| Empowerment | Gives voice to marginalized sections through reservation policies |
🗣️ Quote: "The success of democracy depends upon the decentralization of power. The power flows from the Gram Sabha to the Parliament." — Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
📊 Why Local Government is Essential
| Aspect | Without Local Government | With Local Government |
|---|---|---|
| Decision-Making | Distant officials decide | Local people decide |
| Garbage Problem | Wait for state government orders | Municipality can act immediately |
| Road Repair | Months of paperwork | Quick local action |
| Citizen Voice | Limited | Direct participation in Gram Sabha |
3.1.3 Historical Background: From Ancient Panchayats to Modern System
📜 Ancient and Medieval Period
| Period | Features |
|---|---|
| Vedic Period | References to Sabhas and Samitis (village assemblies) |
| Mauryan Period | Village administration through Gramika |
| Chola Empire | Well-developed village assemblies (Ur, Sabha, Nagaram) |
| Medieval Period | Panchayats continued to function in villages |
🇬🇧 British Period
| Development | Description |
|---|---|
| 1857 | First signs of local governance during Revolt |
| 1870 | Lord Mayo's Resolution on financial decentralization |
| 1882 | Lord Ripon's Resolution (Father of Local Self-Government in India) |
| 1919 | Government of India Act made local self-government a transferred subject |
| 1935 | Provincial autonomy further strengthened local bodies |
👑 Lord Ripon's Contribution: Lord Ripon is called the "Father of Local Self-Government in India" for his 1882 Resolution that laid the foundation for elected local bodies.
🇮🇳 Post-Independence Developments
| Year | Development |
|---|---|
| 1948 | Constitutional provisions for village panchayats in Directive Principles (Article 40) |
| 1952 | Community Development Programme launched |
| 1957 | Balwant Rai Mehta Committee Report recommended three-tier Panchayati Raj |
| 1959 | First Panchayati Raj system inaugurated in Nagaur, Rajasthan |
| 1977 | Ashok Mehta Committee recommended strengthening PRIs |
| 1986 | L.M. Singhvi Committee recommended constitutional status for PRIs |
| 1992 | 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments passed |
| 1993 | Amendments came into force (April 24 for Panchayats, June 1 for Municipalities) |
📝 PSTET Focus Point: Remember the key committees—Balwant Rai Mehta (1957) for three-tier system, Ashok Mehta (1977) for strengthening, and L.M. Singhvi (1986) for constitutional status.
3.2 Rural Local Government: Panchayati Raj System
3.2.1 Three-Tier Structure of Panchayati Raj
🏗️ The Three Tiers
The Panchayati Raj system has a three-tier structure at the village, intermediate (block), and district levels :
┌─────────────────────────┐
│ ZILA PARISHAD │
│ (District Level) │
│ apex body at district│
└───────────┬─────────────┘
│
┌───────────▼─────────────┐
│ PANCHAYAT SAMITI │
│ (Block Level) │
│ intermediate tier │
└───────────┬─────────────┘
│
┌───────────▼─────────────┐
│ GRAM PANCHAYAT │
│ (Village Level) │
│ grassroots unit │
└─────────────────────────┘| Tier | Level | Also Known As | Composition |
|---|---|---|---|
| First Tier | Village | Gram Panchayat | Elected by Gram Sabha |
| Second Tier | Block | Panchayat Samiti, Block Samiti, Taluka Panchayat | Elected from block area |
| Third Tier | District | Zila Parishad, District Council | Elected from district |
🏡 Gram Panchayat (Village Level)
Population-wise Number of Panches (Punjab) :
| Population Range | Number of Panches |
|---|---|
| 300 to 1,000 | 5 |
| 1,001 to 2,000 | 7 |
| 2,001 to 5,000 | 9 |
| 5,001 to 10,000 | 11 |
| 10,001 and above | 13 |
🏘️ Panchayat Samiti (Block Level)
🏛️ Zila Parishad (District Level)
3.2.2 Composition and Election of Panchayats
🗳️ Election Process
👥 Qualification for Membership
3.2.3 Functions and Sources of Funds
📋 Functions of Gram Panchayat
The 11th Schedule of Constitution lists 29 subjects for Panchayats. Key functions include :
| Category | Functions |
|---|---|
| Infrastructure | Construction and maintenance of village roads, drains, street lights |
| Water Supply | Drinking water, wells, hand pumps, ponds |
| Sanitation | Cleanliness, drainage, garbage disposal |
| Public Health | Immunization, health camps, family welfare |
| Education | Primary schools, adult education, mid-day meals |
| Agriculture | Promotion of agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry |
| Social Welfare | Welfare of SC/ST, women, children, disabled |
| Culture | Cultural activities, fairs, festivals |
| Administration | Birth and death registration, statistics |
📌 Special Functions (as per Punjab Panchayati Raj Act)
Removal of encroachments
Supervision of patwaris
Power to introduce prohibition
Making bye-laws for local regulation
Judicial functions (trying petty criminal cases, imposing fine up to ₹200)
💰 Sources of Funds
| Source | Description |
|---|---|
| Own Revenue | Taxes on property, profession, trade, animals, vehicles; fees for licenses |
| Grants-in-Aid | From State Government under Finance Commission recommendations |
| Scheme Funds | Funds for implementing government schemes (MGNREGA, etc.) |
| Loans | From state government or financial institutions |
| Community Contributions | Voluntary contributions from villagers |
3.2.4 Role of Gram Sabha: Direct Democracy in Action
📢 What is Gram Sabha?
Gram Sabha is the body consisting of all persons registered as voters in the area of a Gram Panchayat. It is the foundation of the Panchayati Raj system .
💡 Key Point: While Gram Panchayat is the elected body, Gram Sabha is the general body of all voters—the true expression of direct democracy.
⚡ Powers and Functions of Gram Sabha
| Function | Description |
|---|---|
| Approval of Plans | Approves annual development plan of Gram Panchayat |
| Budget Approval | Examines and approves annual budget |
| Audit Review | Reviews audit reports and accounts |
| Scheme Selection | Identifies beneficiaries for welfare schemes |
| Social Audit | Conducts social audit of development works |
| Recommendations | Recommends development activities to Gram Panchayat |
📅 Gram Sabha Meetings
📝 PSTET Focus Point: Gram Sabha is the most democratic institution—every voter can participate directly. Questions often ask about its composition and functions.
3.3 Urban Local Government
3.3.1 Types of Urban Bodies
🏙️ Three Kinds of Municipalities
Under Article 243Q of the Constitution, three types of municipalities are established based on the size and characteristics of urban areas :
| Type | Area | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Nagar Panchayat | Transitional area (rural to urban) | Smaller towns, semi-urban areas |
| Municipal Council | Smaller urban area | Medium-sized towns and cities |
| Municipal Corporation | Larger urban area | Big cities with high population |
📊 Criteria for Classification
The Governor defines these areas based on :
Population
Density of population
Revenue generated for local administration
Percentage of employment in non-agricultural activities
Other factors as specified
🏛️ Industrial Townships
The Governor may also specify industrial townships where municipal services are provided by an industrial establishment. In such cases, a separate municipality may not be constituted .
3.3.2 Composition and Functions
👥 Composition of Municipalities
🏘️ Ward Committees
In municipalities with population of 3 lakhs or more, Ward Committees are constituted consisting of one or more wards .
📋 Functions of Municipalities
The 12th Schedule of Constitution lists 18 functional items for municipalities :
| No. | Function |
|---|---|
| 1 | Urban planning including town planning |
| 2 | Regulation of land-use and construction of buildings |
| 3 | Planning for economic and social development |
| 4 | Roads and bridges |
| 5 | Water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposes |
| 6 | Public health, sanitation conservancy and solid waste management |
| 7 | Fire services |
| 8 | Urban forestry, protection of environment and promotion of ecological aspects |
| 9 | Safeguarding interests of weaker sections (including handicapped and mentally retarded) |
| 10 | Slum improvement and upgradation |
| 11 | Urban poverty alleviation |
| 12 | Provision of urban amenities and facilities such as parks, gardens, playgrounds |
| 13 | Promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic aspects |
| 14 | Burials and burial grounds; cremations, cremation grounds; electric crematoriums |
| 15 | Cattle pounds; prevention of cruelty to animals |
| 16 | Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths |
| 17 | Public amenities including street lighting, parking lots, bus stops |
| 18 | Regulation of slaughter houses and tanneries |
3.3.3 Sources of Revenue
💵 Municipal Finances
| Source | Description |
|---|---|
| Tax Revenue | Property tax, profession tax, entertainment tax, advertisement tax |
| Non-Tax Revenue | Fees for licenses, rents from municipal properties, user charges |
| Grants | From State Government (through State Finance Commission) |
| Loans | From state government, banks, financial institutions |
| Scheme Funds | Funds for centrally sponsored schemes |
📊 Financial Powers
Under Article 243X, the State Legislature may specify by law:
Taxes, duties, fees which municipalities can levy and collect
Taxes, duties, fees collected by state and shared with municipalities
Grants-in-aid to municipalities
Constitution of funds for crediting and withdrawing money
3.4 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments
3.4.1 Key Provisions of 73rd Amendment (1992)
📜 Introduction
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 came into force on 24th April 1993. It added:
✨ Salient Features
📋 Eleventh Schedule (29 Subjects)
Includes agriculture, land improvement, minor irrigation, animal husbandry, fisheries, social forestry, minor forest produce, small-scale industries, rural housing, drinking water, fuel and fodder, roads, rural electrification, poverty alleviation, education, adult education, cultural activities, market and fairs, health and sanitation, family welfare, women and child development, social welfare, welfare of weaker sections, public distribution system, maintenance of community assets.
3.4.2 Key Provisions of 74th Amendment (1992)
📜 Introduction
The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 came into force on 1st June 1993. It added:
Part IXA to the Constitution (Articles 243P to 243ZG)
✨ Salient Features
📋 Twelfth Schedule (18 Subjects)
As listed in section 3.3.2 above.
3.4.3 Reservation for Women and Scheduled Castes/Tribes
👩👧 Reservation Provisions
📊 Impact of Reservation
| Impact | Description |
|---|---|
| Political Empowerment | Millions of women and SC/ST representatives have entered politics |
| Voice to Marginalized | Previously excluded groups now participate in decision-making |
| Role Models | Women leaders inspire others to contest elections |
| Social Change | Challenges traditional hierarchies |
📝 PSTET Focus Point: Reservation is mandatory—one-third for women, proportionate for SC/ST. This is a landmark achievement of the 73rd and 74th Amendments.
3.4.4 State Election Commissions and Finance Commissions
🗳️ State Election Commission
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Constitutional Provision | Article 243K (Panchayats), Article 243ZA (Municipalities) |
| Appointment | By Governor |
| Status | Independent constitutional authority |
| Functions | Superintendence, direction, and control of elections to local bodies |
| Powers | Preparation of electoral rolls, conduct of elections |
💰 State Finance Commission
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Constitutional Provision | Article 243I (Panchayats), Article 243Y (Municipalities) |
| Appointment | By Governor every 5 years |
| Composition | Chairperson and members as specified by state law |
| Recommendations | Distribution of taxes between state and local bodies, grants-in-aid, improving financial position |
3.5 Local Government in Punjab
3.5.1 Structure of Panchayati Raj in Punjab
📋 Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994
Punjab implemented the 73rd Amendment through the Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 .
| Tier | Name | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Village Level | Gram Panchayat | 5-13 members; Sarpanch directly elected |
| Block Level | Panchayat Samiti | Coordinates Gram Panchayats |
| District Level | Zila Parishad | Apex body at district level |
👥 Gram Panchayat in Punjab
| Feature | Provision |
|---|---|
| Constitution | Every Gram Sabha elects a Gram Panchayat |
| Sarpanch Election | Direct election by Gram Sabha members |
| Panches Election | Elected from wards (multi-member constituencies) |
| Number of Panches | Based on population (5 to 13) |
| Resignation | Sarpanch resigns to Deputy Director; Panches to Deputy Director |
| No-Confidence | Motion against Sarpanch as per prescribed procedure |
📊 Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad
| Body | Composition | Chairperson |
|---|---|---|
| Panchayat Samiti | Elected members from block area, MPs/MLAs, co-opted members | Elected from among members |
| Zila Parishad | Elected members from district, MPs/MLAs, chairpersons of Panchayat Samitis | Elected from among members |
3.5.2 Urban Local Bodies in Major Punjab Cities
🏛️ Municipal Corporations in Punjab
Major Punjab cities have Municipal Corporations :
🏘️ Municipal Councils and Nagar Panchayats
| Type | Examples (Kapurthala District) |
|---|---|
| Municipal Council Class-1 | Kapurthala |
| Municipal Council Class-2 | Sultanpur Lodhi |
| Nagar Panchayat | Begowal, Bhulath, Dhilwan, Nadala |
3.5.3 Success Stories and Challenges
✅ Success Stories
| Success Area | Example |
|---|---|
| Women Empowerment | Thousands of women elected as Panches and Sarpanches across Punjab |
| Infrastructure Development | Villages connected with pucca roads under PMGSY |
| Sanitation | Open Defecation Free (ODF) villages achieved |
| Welfare Schemes | Effective implementation of MGNREGA, social pension schemes |
⚠️ Challenges
| Challenge | Description |
|---|---|
| Financial Constraints | Limited own revenue sources; dependence on state grants |
| Bureaucratic Control | Excessive control by government officials |
| Lack of Capacity | Many elected representatives lack training |
| Caste and Gender Bias | Social discrimination persists in some areas |
| Political Interference | State government interference in local matters |
| Delayed Elections | Occasional delays in conducting elections |
3.6 Pedagogical Focus: Teaching Local Government
🧒 Understanding the Learner (Classes VI-VIII)
Upper primary students:
Are familiar with their village, town, or city
Can observe local problems (garbage, water, roads)
Benefit from direct interaction with local institutions
Learn through field visits and hands-on projects
🚶 Visit to Local Gram Panchayat or Municipal Office
Pre-Visit Preparation
| Step | Activity |
|---|---|
| 1. Permission | Obtain school and parental consent |
| 2. Objectives | Explain purpose: observe functioning of local body |
| 3. Questions | Prepare interview questions for officials/representatives |
| 4. Format | Decide observation format (what to note, what to ask) |
Sample Interview Questions
| For Whom | Questions |
|---|---|
| Sarpanch/Corporator | What are your main duties? What problems does our area face? How are funds used? |
| Secretary | What documents are maintained? How are meetings conducted? |
| Citizen | Are you satisfied with local services? Do you attend Gram Sabha meetings? |
Post-Visit Activities
| Activity | Description |
|---|---|
| Report Writing | Write a report on visit with observations and photographs |
| Class Presentation | Share findings with classmates |
| Thank You Letter | Write to the office expressing gratitude |
| Display | Create bulletin board with visit highlights |
👤 Inviting a Local Representative to Class
Preparation
| Step | Description |
|---|---|
| Invitation | Write formal invitation letter to Sarpanch/Corporator/Municipal Councillor |
| Student Questions | Prepare questions in advance |
| Welcome | Plan welcome and introduction |
Discussion Topics
| Topic | Questions |
|---|---|
| Role and Responsibilities | What does your job involve? How many hours do you work? |
| Local Problems | What are the main problems in our area? How are you solving them? |
| Citizen Participation | How can we help? How can young people contribute? |
| Challenges | What difficulties do you face in your work? |
📋 Project on "Problems in Our Locality and Solutions"
Project Framework
| Phase | Activities |
|---|---|
| Phase 1: Observation | Walk around locality; note problems (garbage, drainage, water, roads, street lights) |
| Phase 2: Survey | Talk to residents about their concerns |
| Phase 3: Research | Find out which local body is responsible for each problem |
| Phase 4: Solutions | Brainstorm possible solutions |
| Phase 5: Presentation | Prepare report with photographs, survey data, recommendations |
Sample Project Format
| Section | Content |
|---|---|
| Title | "Problems in Our Locality and Solutions" |
| Introduction | About our area (name, population, local body) |
| Problems Identified | List with photographs and description |
| Responsible Body | Which department/officer handles each problem |
| Resident Views | Summary of survey responses |
| Recommendations | What should be done? |
| Conclusion | What we learned |
Extension: Letter to Local Body
Students can write letters to the local body with their recommendations, learning how citizens can voice concerns.
📝 Sample Lesson Plan: "Our Local Government"
| Component | Description |
|---|---|
| Topic | Understanding the local government in our area |
| Class | VI-VII |
| Duration | 3 class periods |
| Learning Objectives | Students will: (1) Identify the local body in their area (2) Understand its functions (3) Observe local problems and suggest solutions |
| Day 1: Introduction | Discuss: What is local government? Who solves our local problems? Show chart of three-tier system |
| Day 2: Field Visit/Invited Talk | Visit Gram Panchayat/Municipal Office or invite representative to class |
| Day 3: Project Work | Students work on "Problems in Our Locality" project in groups |
| Assessment | Project report, participation in discussion, questions asked during visit |
📝 Chapter Summary: Key Points for PSTET Revision
🔑 Local Self-Government
| Aspect | Key Point |
|---|---|
| Definition | Government of local affairs by locally elected bodies |
| Importance | Grassroots democracy, proximity to people, efficient service delivery |
| Father of Local Self-Government | Lord Ripon |
🔑 Three-Tier Panchayati Raj
| Tier | Level | Key Body |
|---|---|---|
| First | Village | Gram Panchayat |
| Second | Block | Panchayat Samiti |
| Third | District | Zila Parishad |
🔑 Gram Sabha
All voters in Gram Panchayat area
Foundation of Panchayati Raj
Approves plans, budget, conducts social audit
🔑 Urban Local Bodies
| Type | Area |
|---|---|
| Nagar Panchayat | Transitional area |
| Municipal Council | Smaller urban area |
| Municipal Corporation | Larger urban area |
🔑 73rd Amendment (1992)
| Feature | Provision |
|---|---|
| Part Added | IX (Articles 243-243O) |
| Schedule Added | Eleventh (29 subjects) |
| Reservation | SC/ST proportionate; women 1/3rd |
| Term | 5 years |
| Elections | State Election Commission |
🔑 74th Amendment (1992)
| Feature | Provision |
|---|---|
| Part Added | IXA (Articles 243P-243ZG) |
| Schedule Added | Twelfth (18 subjects) |
| Three Types | Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, Municipal Corporation |
| Ward Committees | For population above 3 lakhs |
🔑 Local Government in Punjab
Urban: Municipal Corporations in major cities (Ludhiana, Amritsar, Jalandhar, Patiala, Phagwara)
Examples: Kapurthala (Municipal Council), Sultanpur Lodhi (Municipal Council), Begowal (Nagar Panchayat)
📝 Practice Questions for PSTET Preparation
Multiple Choice Questions
Who is called the "Father of Local Self-Government in India"?
a) Lord Mayo
b) Lord Ripon
c) Lord Curzon
d) Lord MountbattenUnder which Article of the Constitution are Panchayats established?
a) Article 40
b) Article 243
c) Article 246
d) Article 324What is the minimum age to contest Panchayat elections?
a) 18 years
b) 21 years
c) 25 years
d) 30 yearsHow many subjects are listed in the Eleventh Schedule?
a) 18
b) 29
c) 33
d) 42For municipalities with population above how many lakhs are Ward Committees mandatory?
a) 1 lakh
b) 2 lakhs
c) 3 lakhs
d) 5 lakhsWhat percentage of seats are reserved for women in Panchayats?
a) 25%
b) 30%
c) 33%
d) 50%Which committee recommended the three-tier Panchayati Raj system?
a) Ashok Mehta Committee
b) Balwant Rai Mehta Committee
c) L.M. Singhvi Committee
d) G.V.K. Rao CommitteeThe term of Panchayats and Municipalities is:
a) 3 years
b) 4 years
c) 5 years
d) 6 yearsWhich type of urban body is established for transitional areas?
a) Municipal Corporation
b) Municipal Council
c) Nagar Panchayat
d) Cantonment BoardAs per Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, how many Panches are there for population between 1,001 to 2,000?
a) 5
b) 7
c) 9
d) 11
Short Answer Questions
Define local self-government. Why is it important in a democracy?
Explain the three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj system.
What is Gram Sabha? Mention any four functions of Gram Sabha.
List the three types of urban local bodies under the 74th Amendment.
What are the key provisions of reservation in Panchayats and Municipalities?
Long Answer Questions
Discuss the salient features of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992.
Compare the composition and functions of Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, and Zila Parishad.
Explain the provisions of the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act regarding composition, functions, and finances of municipalities.
Describe the structure of local government in Punjab with examples of both rural and urban bodies.
As a teacher, how would you help students understand the functioning of local government? Describe any two pedagogical activities.
✅ Chapter Completion Checklist
Before moving to Chapter 4, ensure you can:
Define local self-government and explain its importance
Trace the historical evolution from ancient panchayats to 73rd/74th Amendments
Draw and explain three-tier Panchayati Raj structure
Describe composition of Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Zila Parishad
Explain functions of Gram Panchayat and sources of funds
Define Gram Sabha and its role
List three types of urban local bodies
Recall 18 functions of municipalities (12th Schedule)
Explain key provisions of 73rd Amendment (Part IX, 29 subjects, reservation)
Explain key provisions of 74th Amendment (Part IXA, 18 subjects, three types)
Plan a field visit to local body
Design a "Problems in Our Locality" project
🔗 Online Resources for Further Learning
| Resource | Description | Link/How to Find |
|---|---|---|
| Ministry of Panchayati Raj | Government policies, schemes | panchayat.gov.in |
| Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs | Urban development, municipal affairs | mohua.gov.in |
| Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 | Full text | indiankanoon.org |
| State Election Commission, Punjab | Election information | secpunjab.gov.in |
| NCERT Social and Political Life (Class VI) | Chapter on Local Government | ncert.nic.in |
| Punjab Municipal Corporation Acts | Urban local body legislation | punjab.gov.in |
🎓 Prepared for PSTET Aspirants
This chapter provides comprehensive coverage of "Local Government" as per PSTET Paper II syllabus. Understanding the Panchayati Raj system and urban local bodies is crucial for both the exam and your future teaching. The constitutional amendments, reservation policies, and Punjab-specific examples are particularly important. Use the pedagogical activities to help students connect with local democracy in their own communities.
