Chapter 3: The Social World of Children: Socialization Processes
🌍 Chapter Overview
Welcome to Chapter 3 of your PSTET CDP journey! This chapter explores one of the most fascinating aspects of child development—how children become social beings. As a teacher, understanding socialization processes helps you appreciate the profound impact that family, peers, and you—the teacher—have on shaping a child's identity, behavior, and worldview.
| Section | Topic | PSTET Weightage |
|---|---|---|
| 3.1 | Meaning and Nature of Socialization | Moderate |
| 3.2 | Primary Agents of Socialization: The Family | High |
| 3.3 | Secondary Agents: Peers and Teachers | High |
| 3.4 | Socialization and Schooling | Very High |
3.1 Meaning and Nature of Socialization: The Process of Becoming a Social Being
🎯 Learning Objectives
After studying this section, you will be able to:
Define socialization and explain its critical importance
Understand what happens when socialization is absent
Differentiate between socialization and socializing
The Story That Teaches Us Everything: Danielle's Case
📖 Real-Life Case Study for PSTET
In the summer of 2005, police detective Mark Holste entered a shabby house in Plant City, Florida, following a neighbor's report. What he found shocked the world:
"She lay on a torn, moldy mattress on the floor. She was curled on her side… her ribs and collarbone jutted out… her black hair was matted, crawling with lice. Insect bites, rashes and sores pocked her skin… She was naked — except for a swollen diaper… Her name, her mother said, was Danielle. She was almost seven years old."
Danielle's Condition After Years of Isolation:
| Area | Observation |
|---|---|
| Physical | Severely malnourished; could only stand with support; walked "sideways on her toes, like a crab" |
| Cognitive | No understanding of family, bathroom use, or modesty |
| Language | Could not communicate with words or gestures |
| Emotional | Vacant eyes; did not respond to pain; did not cry |
| Social | Would not look anyone in the eyes |
📌 PSTET Key Point: Danielle had been neglected beyond basic survival needs. Without regular interaction—holding, hugging, talking, explanations, demonstrations—she had not learned to walk, eat, speak, interact, play, or understand her world. She had not been socialized .
What is Socialization?
Socialization is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society. It describes the ways that people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society's beliefs, and to be aware of societal values .
📌 PSTET Definition: Socialization is the process of learning to be a human being that is born with the potential to be human. The transformation of a baby into a human depends on being given the opportunity to live in a human community and learn to be human .
Key Distinction: Socialization vs. Socializing
| Aspect | Socialization | Socializing |
|---|---|---|
| Meaning | A sociological process of learning norms, values, and beliefs | Interacting with others casually |
| Purpose | To become a functioning member of society | To enjoy company, share information |
| Depth | Deep, internalized learning | Surface-level interaction |
| Duration | Lifelong process | Temporary episodes |
| Outcome | Development of self and identity | Immediate pleasure or connection |
Socialization is NOT the same as socializing. Rather, socialization is a process that occurs through socializing .
What Do We Learn Through Socialization?
Material Culture (Tangible objects):
How to hold a spoon
How to bounce a ball
How to use a chair for sitting
Nonmaterial Culture (Intangible aspects):
The Critical Importance of Socialization
1. It Makes Us Human
"The self, as that which can be an object to itself, is essentially a social structure, and it arises in social experience." — George Herbert Mead
Danielle's case proves that even basic physical tasks like sitting, standing, and walking do NOT develop automatically. They must be learned through social interaction .
2. It Develops the Self
The self refers to a person's distinct sense of identity—who we are for ourselves and who we are for others. It has consistency and continuity through time .
| Scholar | Concept | Key Idea |
|---|---|---|
| Charles Horton Cooley | Looking-Glass Self | Others are like mirrors in which we see ourselves |
| George Herbert Mead | Social Self | Self arises ONLY in social experience |
| Zygmunt Bauman | Postulated Self | A horizon toward which we strive |
Without society, the self does NOT exist: "[I]t is impossible to conceive of a self arising outside of social experience" (Mead, 1934) .
3. It Continues Throughout Life
Socialization is NOT limited to childhood. It is a lifelong process through which we become prepared for new social environments and expectations at every stage .
Evidence from Feral Children and Isolated Cases
Research on children like Victor of Aveyron, Kamala, Shamdev, Anna, Genie, and Danielle reveals consistent findings :
| Child | Context | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Victor | Found in forests of France | Could not speak; made strange sounds |
| Kamala & Amala | Wolf children in India | Animal-like behavior; no human feelings |
| Genie | Isolated in California | Limited language acquisition despite training |
| Danielle | Isolated in Florida | Could not perform simple physical activities |
Most importantly, efforts to "humanize" these individuals have NOT been successful enough, except in rare cases like Isabella .
Studies on Institutionalized Children
Research on children living in orphanages—particularly in Romania—revealed that meeting basic needs (food, drink, shelter) is NOT sufficient. Humane interaction is essential for normal development .
🏫 PSTET Classroom Application
| Understanding | Teacher's Action |
|---|---|
| Socialization is essential for human development | Create a warm, interactive classroom environment |
| Language develops through social interaction | Encourage peer discussion and conversation |
| Self emerges through relationships | Build positive teacher-student relationships |
| Socialization is lifelong | Continue modeling positive behavior |
3.2 Primary Agents of Socialization: The Role of the Family
🎯 Learning Objectives
After studying this section, you will be able to:
Explain why family is the primary agent of socialization
Describe how parents socialize children through various mechanisms
Understand the impact of parenting styles on child development
Why Family is the Primary Agent
📌 PSTET Key Point: The family is the earliest and most pervasive socialization agent. Even though socialization continues throughout life, most research attention has been on children, and the most important context is the family .
Reasons for Family's Primary Role:
| Factor | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Timing | First social environment from birth |
| Duration | Continuous, long-term exposure |
| Intensity | Emotional intensity of family bonds |
| Scope | Covers all aspects of development |
| Foundation | Lays groundwork for all future socialization |
The Family as a Social System
The family is NOT just parent-child interaction. It includes multiple subsystems :
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐ │ FAMILY SYSTEM │ ├─────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ ┌──────────────┐ │ │ │ PARENT-CHILD │ ← Primary focus │ │ │ Subsystem │ of research │ │ └──────────────┘ │ │ │ │ ┌──────────────┐ │ │ │ MARITAL │ ← Affects child │ │ │ Subsystem │ indirectly │ │ └──────────────┘ │ │ │ │ ┌──────────────┐ │ │ │ SIBLING │ ← Peer-like │ │ │ Subsystem │ relationships │ │ └──────────────┘ │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────┘
Parent-Child Interaction: The Core of Family Socialization
Research indicates that parents are most effective as agents of socialization when specific conditions are met .
The Two Critical Dimensions
| Dimension | Description | High Expression | Low Expression |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parental Support | Nurturance, warmth, affection | Child feels loved and valued | Child feels rejected |
| Parental Control | Rules, expectations, discipline | Clear, consistent guidance | Permissive or chaotic |
Optimal Parenting: High Support + Inductive Control
When parents express high levels of support combined with inductive control, children experience the most favorable outcomes :
| Outcome | Description |
|---|---|
| Identification | Children identify with parents |
| Internalization | Children internalize parental values |
| Role Modeling | Parents serve as role models |
| Receptivity | Children are receptive to influence |
| Self-Concept | Positive self-conceptions develop |
| Conscience | Strong moral conscience develops |
⚠️ Important: Conversely, low parental support combined with coercive control is associated with unfavorable socialization outcomes .
Reciprocal Influences
📌 Key Insight: Socialization is NOT a one-way street. Children affect parents as much as parents affect children .
Parent Behavior ──► Child Outcome
▲ │
│ │
└──────────────────┘
Reciprocal Influence
Examples:
• Compliant child → Positive parental response → More warmth
• Rebellious child → Frustrated parental response → More coercionHow Families Socialize Children: Multiple Processes
1. Direct Teaching
Parents self-consciously attempt to teach children by :
Praising and approving desired behaviors
Punishing undesired responses
Instructing and reasoning
Explaining rules and standards
2. Indirect Processes (More Subtle)
Many prosocial actions and motivations emerge through subtle processes without direct teaching :
| Process | Description |
|---|---|
| Imitation | Children copy parental behavior |
| Identification | Children want to be like parents |
| Observational Learning | Learning by watching |
Beyond Parent-Child Interaction: The Family Unit
The family as a whole has properties that cannot be inferred from individual relationships .
Family Myths
Myths refer to beliefs that influence family process, provide continuity across generations, and are generally not open to discussion or debate .
Example: "In our family, we always help others" or "We are the kind of people who value education"
Family Stories
Family stories serve as vehicles for socialization by transmitting experiences across generations .
| Narrative Dimension | Description |
|---|---|
| Narrative Coherence | How well stories hang together |
| Narrative Styles | How stories are told |
| Relationship Beliefs | What stories convey about relationships |
Research shows stories are linked to children's social competence .
Family Rituals and Routines
| Aspect | Description | Socialization Function |
|---|---|---|
| Routines | Instrumental communication; "what needs to be done" | Better child health; behavioral regulation |
| Rituals | Symbolic communication; "who we are as a group" | Higher self-esteem; protective function |
Families who preserve rituals (holidays, routines) have children less likely to become alcoholic adults
Families who attach more meaning to rituals have adolescents with higher self-esteem
Routines serve protective functions in single-parent, divorced, and remarried households
Determinants of Family Socialization
Family socialization strategies are influenced by multiple factors :
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐ │ FACTORS INFLUENCING SOCIALIZATION │ ├─────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ • Child characteristics │ │ • Social support available │ │ • Socioeconomic status (SES) │ │ • Ethnic background │ │ • Social change │ │ • Family structure │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────┘
Family Structure and Socialization
Sociological interest in family structure effects has increased as single-parent families become more prevalent .
| Finding | Caveat |
|---|---|
| Child socialization in single-parent families may be disadvantageous compared to two-parent families | Numerous factors affect this relationship (economic level, quality of parental relationship) |
| Research evidence suggests disadvantages | Considerable ambiguity remains; more research needed |
🏫 PSTET Classroom Application
| Family Factor | Teacher Implication |
|---|---|
| Child comes from single-parent home | Avoid stereotyping; provide additional support as needed |
| Family has strong rituals | Respect family traditions; incorporate cultural practices |
| Parental support may be low | Provide warm, supportive classroom environment |
| Sibling interactions shape social skills | Use cooperative learning strategies |
3.3 Secondary Agents of Socialization: Peers and Teachers
🎯 Learning Objectives
After studying this section, you will be able to:
Explain how peers socialize children as equals
Describe the teacher's dual role as guide and authority figure
Understand the interaction between different socialization agents
The Expanding Social World
As children grow, their social world expands beyond the family. New socializing agents join the process :
AGE: Infancy ───► Early Childhood ───► Middle Childhood ───► Adolescence
│ │ │ │
▼ ▼ ▼ ▼
FAMILY ──────► FAMILY ─────────────► FAMILY ────────────► FAMILY
PEERS PEERS PEERS
TEACHERS TEACHERS
MEDIA📌 PSTET Key Point: New socializing agents may reinforce previous norms, expand the interpretation of norms, or introduce new ones. Children are expected to adapt their behavior accordingly .
Peers as Socialization Agents
Why Peers Are Different
| Aspect | Family | Peers |
|---|---|---|
| Power Structure | Hierarchical (parent-child) | Equal status |
| Relationship Basis | Biological, lifelong | Voluntary, can change |
| Socialization Style | Authority-based | Negotiation-based |
| Key Learning | Basic values, attachment | Social skills, cooperation |
What Children Learn from Peers
| Learning Area | Description |
|---|---|
| Cooperation | Working together toward common goals |
| Conflict Resolution | Negotiating disagreements |
| Perspective-Taking | Understanding others' viewpoints |
| Social Norms | Peer culture, unwritten rules |
| Identity Formation | Who they are in relation to others |
Peer Influence on Prosocial Behavior
Research shows that peers play an influential role in adolescents' prosocial behavior :
Adolescents' perceptions of their peers' expectations regarding prosocial behavior was significantly related to the adolescents' engagement in actual prosocial behaviors at school .
Important Finding: The racial demographics of the school may influence this effect. Peer influence appears to be affected by whether the student attends a school where their racial group represents the majority .
Positive Peer Influence
While peer influences are often discussed in terms of negative or antisocial influences, research provides initial support for positive influences :
Encouraging helpful behavior
Promoting academic engagement
Supporting prosocial values
Teachers as Socialization Agents
The Dual Role of Teachers
Teachers serve two simultaneous functions in children's lives :
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐ │ THE TEACHER │ ├─────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ AS GUIDE │ │ │ │ • Facilitates learning │ │ │ │ • Models behavior │ │ │ │ • Provides support │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ AS AUTHORITY FIGURE │ │ │ │ • Sets expectations │ │ │ │ • Enforces rules │ │ │ │ • Evaluates performance │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────┘
Teacher Practices That Influence Socialization
| Teacher Practice | Description | Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Pedagogical capacity | Teaching skill and effectiveness | Academic learning; student engagement |
| Management style | Classroom organization and discipline | Classroom climate; behavior norms |
| Authority understanding | How teacher views their role | Student respect; rule following |
| Sensitivity and intuition | Awareness of student needs | Emotional safety; trust |
| Democratic example | Modeling democratic values | Citizenship learning |
Proximal and Distal Influences
Teachers influence students through two mechanisms :
| Influence Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Proximal (Direct) | Immediate intervention | Stopping a bullying episode |
| Distal (Indirect) | Shaping development over time | Teaching empathy that prevents future bullying |
The Interactive Effects of Teachers and Peers
Research emphasizes that teachers and peers have interactive effects on students :
The account outlines the interactive effects of teachers and peers on students, balances normative and control aspects of interaction .
Socialization Through Multiple Agents: Key Principles
🏫 PSTET Classroom Application
| Socialization Agent | Teacher's Role |
|---|---|
| Peers | Structure positive peer interactions; monitor peer dynamics |
| Self as Teacher | Be mindful of modeling; understand authority role |
| Multiple Agents | Communicate with parents; create consistent expectations |
| Positive Peer Culture | Foster cooperative learning; encourage prosocial peer norms |
3.4 Socialization and Schooling: Schools as Crucial Social Context
🎯 Learning Objectives
After studying this section, you will be able to:
Explain how schools function as social subsystems
Understand the school's role beyond academic learning
Identify the various elements within schools that socialize children
The School as a Social Institution
📌 PSTET Key Point: The school is not merely a site of learning and teaching, but a particular kind of social setting .
Schools as Social Sub-systems :
Aid in educating people about social conventions, practices, norms, traditions, values, and beliefs
Help students acquire social skills necessary for relationships with others in the community
Enable students to analyze, assess, and bring about needed changes in society
What Schools Do Beyond Academics
| Function | Description |
|---|---|
| Socialization | Transmit cultural values and norms |
| Integration | Bring children together from diverse backgrounds |
| Selection and Allocation | Sort and prepare students for adult roles |
| Legitimation | Validate certain knowledge and skills as important |
| Custodial Care | Supervise children while parents work |
Elements of School Socialization
The school space involves multiple elements that mediate socialization :
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ ELEMENTS OF SCHOOL SOCIALIZATION │ ├─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ TEACHERS │ │ │ │ • Pedagogical capacity │ │ │ │ • Management style │ │ │ │ • Authority understanding │ │ │ │ • Sensitivity and intuition │ │ │ │ • Democratic example │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ EDUCATIONAL CLIMATE/ATMOSPHERE │ │ │ │ • Open and democratic climate │ │ │ │ • Hidden curriculum │ │ │ │ • Physical environment │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ TEACHING MATERIALS AND BOOKS │ │ │ │ • Content reflects hidden curriculum │ │ │ │ • May maintain or challenge stereotypes │ │ │ │ • Can conceal or reveal historical figures │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ STUDENTS │ │ │ │ • Degree of development │ │ │ │ • Expectations and motivations │ │ │ │ • Family background │ │ │ │ • Social class │ │ │ │ • Personal history │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
The Hidden Curriculum
Hidden curriculum refers to the unspoken, implicit lessons that students learn in school beyond the formal academic content .
| Aspect | What Is Taught Implicitly |
|---|---|
| Time | Punctuality, schedules, waiting |
| Authority | Hierarchy, obedience, respect for rules |
| Social Norms | 排队, sharing, turn-taking |
| Values | Competition, cooperation, individualism |
| Stereotypes | Gender, ethnic, class assumptions |
School Climate and Socialization
An open and democratic climate fosters positive political attitudes, such as greater valuation of political capacities .
| Climate Type | Characteristics | Socialization Outcomes |
|---|---|---|
| Open/Democratic | Student voice, respect, participation | Higher civic engagement; critical thinking |
| Authoritarian | Strict rules, compliance focus | Obedience; lower initiative |
| Chaotic | Inconsistent expectations | Anxiety; poor self-regulation |
Schools and Children's Agency
Far from producing docile subjects, modern schools facilitate children's agency in several ways :
Philosophy: Learning is through doing (active participation)
Innovation: Schools provide umbrella for innovations regarding children's agency
Resistance: Schools create spaces for innovation and resistance
As a social setting, the school has constituted a diagram through which social and cultural practices are made intelligible .
Historical Perspective: Schools as Socializing Agents
Historically, children were educated through informal apprenticeships. Each generation handed down what it knew from its own experience. However, this system "gradually withered on the vine from the sixteenth century onwards" as it was unable to cope with a changing and growing mercantile and urban economy .
Schools and Cultural Capital
Research identifies participation in the arts as a primary component of cultural capital that pays off in both educational and occupational attainment .
Two models explain how people acquire cultural capital :
| Model | Explanation | Implication |
|---|---|---|
| Cultural Reproduction | Family arts socialization induces arts participation; used by high-status parents to ensure similar position for offspring | Advantage perpetuates |
| Cultural Mobility | School and peers can compensate for lack of cultural resources at home | School can equalize |
🏫 PSTET Classroom Application
| School Element | Teacher's Action |
|---|---|
| Hidden Curriculum | Be aware of implicit messages; make the hidden visible |
| School Climate | Contribute to positive, democratic classroom atmosphere |
| Teaching Materials | Examine textbooks for biases; supplement with inclusive materials |
| Student Diversity | Recognize varied backgrounds as assets, not deficits |
| Cultural Capital | Provide cultural experiences for all students |
🔑 Chapter Summary for PSTET Revision
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ CHAPTER 3: QUICK REVISION │ ├─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ SOCIALIZATION DEFINED │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ Process of learning to be a human being │ │ │ │ Learning norms, values, beliefs, skills │ │ │ │ Self emerges ONLY through social interaction │ │ │ │ Essential for basic human functions │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ PRIMARY AGENT: FAMILY │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ • Earliest and most pervasive │ │ │ │ • Optimal: High support + inductive control │ │ │ │ • Processes: Direct teaching, imitation, rituals │ │ │ │ • Includes parent-child, marital, sibling subsystems │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ SECONDARY AGENTS │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ PEERS: Equal status; teach cooperation, norms │ │ │ │ TEACHERS: Guide + authority; model behavior │ │ │ │ Both have interactive effects on students │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ SCHOOL AS SOCIAL CONTEXT │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ • Social sub-system transmitting norms │ │ │ │ • Elements: Teachers, climate, materials, students │ │ │ │ • Hidden curriculum teaches implicit lessons │ │ │ │ • Can reproduce OR reduce inequality │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ MNEMONIC: "F-P-T-S" │ │ F - Family (Primary) │ │ P - Peers (Equal status) │ │ T - Teachers (Guide + Authority) │ │ S - School (Social context) │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
✅ Self-Assessment Checklist
Tick (✓) when you can confidently:
Define socialization and explain its importance using case examples
Explain what happens when children are deprived of socialization
Describe why family is the primary socialization agent
Identify optimal parenting characteristics (high support + inductive control)
Explain family myths, stories, and rituals as socialization mechanisms
Describe how peers socialize children differently from family
Explain the teacher's dual role as guide and authority figure
List the elements of school socialization
Define and give examples of hidden curriculum
Apply socialization concepts to classroom situations
Answer PSTET-level questions on this chapter
📝 Practice Questions for PSTET
Q1. The case of Danielle, the Florida girl found isolated at age seven, demonstrates that:
a) Physical needs are more important than social needs
b) Basic human activities like walking develop automatically
c) Socialization is essential for normal human development
d) Language develops even without social interaction
Answer: c) Socialization is essential for normal human development
Q2. According to research, parents are most effective as socialization agents when they demonstrate:
a) High support with coercive control
b) Low support with inductive control
c) High support with inductive control
d) Low support with permissive control
Answer: c) High support with inductive control
Q3. Which of the following is an example of the hidden curriculum in schools?
a) Mathematics textbook content
b) Science laboratory equipment
c) Implicit lessons about punctuality and obedience
d) Physical education classes
Answer: c) Implicit lessons about punctuality and obedience
Q4. Family rituals, such as holiday celebrations, serve what function in child socialization?
a) Only entertainment value
b) Symbolic communication of "who we are as a group"
c) Instrumental communication of daily tasks
d) No significant developmental impact
Answer: b) Symbolic communication of "who we are as a group"
Q5. According to research, peers can influence adolescents' prosocial behavior through:
a) Only negative influences
b) Perceptions of peer expectations regarding behavior
c) Competition for grades
d) Sibling relationships only
Answer: b) Perceptions of peer expectations regarding behavior
📚 References for Further Reading
Introduction to Sociology – 2nd Canadian Edition. (2021). Chapter 5: Socialization
Taylor & Francis. (2024). School and Peer Group as Agents of Socialisation
Cambridge University Press. (2013). The Agency of Children: School and Education
International Journal of Progressive Education. (2022). Socialization: The Process of Learning to Be Human
ScienceDirect. (2020). Socialization in Infancy and Early Childhood
Gujarat University. (2022). Education and Society: Role of Schools
Sociology for Social Service Workers. Chapter 6: Socialization
Cambridge University Press. (2009). The Roots of Prosocial Behavior in Children
Next Chapter Preview: Chapter 4 - Pioneers of Cognitive Development: Piaget, Vygotsky, and Kohlberg
We will explore the major theories explaining how children think, reason, and develop morally.
