Chapter 5: Early States and the Vedic Age
π― Focus: The advent of the Indo-Aryans and the composition of the Vedas, which laid the foundation for much of later Indian culture.
πΊ️ Theme: Understanding the transformation of society from pastoral, tribal communities to complex, territorial kingdoms, and the evolution of ideas that shaped Indian philosophy.
✨ Introduction: The Dawn of a New Era
Following the decline of the magnificent Harappan cities, the Indian subcontinent witnessed the arrival of new peoples and the composition of its most sacred texts—the Vedas. This period, known as the Vedic Age, is not just a chapter in history; it is the bedrock of Hindu culture, philosophy, and social structure. For a PSTET teacher, this is a crucial topic because it explains the origins of many traditions, rituals, and social norms that continue to influence Indian society today.
The Vedic Age is broadly divided into two main phases, marked by significant changes in geography, economy, society, and religion .
| π·️ Phase | π️ Approximate Dates | π Geographical Focus | π Key Texts |
|---|---|---|---|
| Early Vedic Period | 1500 BCE - 1000 BCE | Sapta Sindhu (Land of Seven Rivers), covering parts of Punjab and the northwest. | Rig Veda (primarily). |
| Later Vedic Period | 1000 BCE - 600 BCE | Ganga-Yamuna Doab and further east into Kosala and Videha (modern UP & Bihar). | Sama, Yajur, Atharva Veda, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads. |
π Section 1: The Foundation of Thought - The Vedic Texts
The term 'Veda' is derived from the Sanskrit root 'vid', meaning 'to know'. The Vedas are considered Shruti ("that which is heard"), the eternal, divinely revealed knowledge passed down orally through generations before being compiled . They are the primary sources for understanding this entire period.
π 1.1. The Four Vedas
π 1.2. The Explanatory Texts: Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads
The Vedas are not standalone texts. They are surrounded and supplemented by a vast literature that explains and expands upon their rituals and philosophies .
π§π« The Brahmanas: These are prose commentaries attached to each Veda. They provide detailed explanations of Vedic rituals, their symbolic meaning, and the social role of priests. For example, the Shatapatha Brahmana (attached to the Yajur Veda) contains elaborate discussions on rituals and the creation of the world .
π² The Aranyakas ("Forest Books"): These texts are meant to be studied in the solitude of the forest by hermits and those who have retired from household life. They focus on philosophical discussions and the inner meaning of rituals, moving away from the external performance .
π§ The Upanishads ("Sitting Down Near"): These are the most philosophical texts of the Vedic corpus, often called Vedanta (the end of the Veda). They shift the focus from sacrifices to the nature of reality, the soul, and the ultimate truth. They explore concepts like Brahman (the ultimate reality) and Atman (the individual soul). The Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads are among the oldest and most important .
π 1.3. The Vedangas: Limbs for Understanding the Vedas
To properly preserve and understand the Vedas, six auxiliary disciplines, known as Vedangas, were developed :
Shiksha (Phonetics): Correct pronunciation of mantras.
Kalpa (Rituals): Proper performance of rituals (includes Shrauta, Grihya, and Dharma Sutras).
Vyakarana (Grammar): Understanding sentence structure (PΔαΉini's Ashtadhyayi is the most famous).
Nirukta (Etymology): The meaning of difficult Vedic words (Yaska's work is key).
Chhanda (Metrics): The poetic meter of the hymns.
Jyotisha (Astronomy/Astrology): Determining the right time for sacrifices.
π‘ PSTET Tip: Remember the key slokas and their location:
Gayatri Mantra: Dedicated to Savitr (the Sun God), found in the 3rd Mandala of the Rig Veda .
Purusha Sukta: Found in the 10th Mandala of the Rig Veda, which describes the origin of the four Varnas from the cosmic being, Purusha .
"Satyameva Jayate": This phrase originates from the Mundaka Upanishad (part of the Atharva Veda) .
π️ Section 2: The Early Vedic Period (c. 1500–1000 BCE) - The Age of the Rig Veda
This was a formative period, where society was organized around tribes and kinship, and the economy was primarily pastoral.
π 2.1. Polity: The Tribal Chiefdom
The political organization was based on kinship and tribe, not territory. The primary political unit was the Jana (tribe) .
The King (Rajan): The king's primary duty was to protect the tribe and cattle. His position was hereditary, but he was not an autocrat. He relied on the support of the people and had to consult various assemblies .
Tribal Assemblies: Two important bodies kept the king's power in check .
Sabha: A council of elders and nobles. It was more exclusive.
Samiti: A general assembly of the entire people (vishah). It dealt with important political and religious matters. The presence of these bodies indicates a limited, tribal democracy.
Officials: The king was assisted by a few officials, such as the Purohita (chief priest), Senani (army commander), and Gramini (head of the village) .
Important Tribes (Janas): The Bharatas and the Tritsu were prominent. They fought the famous Battle of the Ten Kings against an alliance of ten other tribes (including the Purus, Yadus, etc.) on the banks of the Ravi River.
π 2.2. Economy: Pastoralism and Barter
The Early Vedic economy was predominantly pastoral, with cattle rearing as the main occupation .
Wealth = Cattle: A man's wealth was measured in the number of cattle he owned (gomat). The word for war (gavishti) literally means "search for cows" .
Agriculture: Agriculture was a secondary activity. They practiced shifting cultivation and grew barley (yava) , which was the only grain known .
Trade: Trade was limited and conducted through the barter system. The term for merchants was Pani, but they are often described negatively in the Rig Veda .
Gifts and Booty: The economy was also sustained through gifts exchanged between chiefs and priests, and through war booty.
π§π€π§ 2.3. Society: Egalitarian and Kinship-Based
Early Vedic society was relatively egalitarian, with its primary focus on the family and tribe .
Family (Kula): The family was the basic social unit, headed by the Kulapa. The society was patriarchal.
Village (Gram): A group of families formed a grama, headed by the Gramini.
Varna System in Infancy: While the Purusha Sukta mentions the four varnas, it is considered a later interpolation. In the Early Vedic period, society was mainly divided into Aryas and Dasas/Dasyus (non-Aryans), based on ethnicity and language, not birth-based caste. Occupation was not rigid.
Position of Women: Women enjoyed a relatively high status. They could attend assemblies (Sabha and Samiti), choose their partners (Swayamvara), and remarry. Education was not denied to them, and some women like Lopamudra, Ghosha, and Apala composed hymns .
Cattle vs. Land: Land was collectively owned by the tribe (jana), not by individuals. Cattle, however, were privately owned.
π 2.4. Religion: Worship of Nature
The Early Vedic religion was a simple form of nature worship, with no temples or idol worship. The gods were personifications of natural forces .
Chief Gods:
Indra: The most important god (warlike), god of rain and thunder, often called Purandara (breaker of forts). About 250 hymns are dedicated to him.
Agni: The god of fire, the intermediary between gods and humans, the protector of the home.
Varuna: The guardian of Rita (the cosmic order), upholding moral and natural law.
Other Gods: Surya (Sun), Savitri (whose Gayatri mantra is famous), Vayu (Wind), Ushas (Dawn), and Prithvi (Earth).
Mode of Worship: Worship consisted of simple prayers and sacrifices (yajnas) performed by the head of the family. Offerings of milk, ghee, and grain were made. There was no concept of temples or idol worship.
⚔️ Section 3: The Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 BCE) - The Age of Transformation
This period saw dramatic changes. The use of iron (referred to as shyama or krishna ayas) in the upper Gangetic basin allowed for the clearing of dense forests and the development of a settled agricultural economy . This technological leap was the catalyst for all other changes.
π° 3.1. Polity: From Jana to Janapada
The most significant political change was the transition from tribal chiefdoms to territorial kingdoms .
Emergence of Territorial States: The tribe (jana) gave way to the Janapada, a territory-based state. Larger kingdoms like Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, and Videha emerged in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
Growth of Royal Power: The king's power increased dramatically. The Sabha and Samiti lost their importance, and women were excluded from them .
Elaborate Sacrifices: The king's status was enhanced through grand public sacrifices, which also became a source of revenue and power for the priests .
Rajasuya: The royal consecration ceremony, which was supposed to confer supreme power on the king.
Ashvamedha (Horse Sacrifice): A horse was let loose to roam for a year, followed by the king's army. The territories it passed through had to either submit or fight. This was a dramatic assertion of sovereignty.
Vajapeya (Chariot Race): A ceremony involving a chariot race, which was believed to rejuvenate the king's power and status.
Council of Ratnins: The king was assisted by a council of 12-18 officers called Ratnins (jewel-bearers), which included the Purohita, Senani, Gramini, treasurer, and others, indicating a more formalized administrative structure .
πΎ 3.2. Economy: The Rise of Agriculture and Trade
The economy underwent a complete transformation, becoming based on settled agriculture .
Agriculture as the Mainstay: With the use of iron ploughshares, heavy ploughing became possible. Agriculture became the primary occupation. In addition to barley, crops like rice (vrihi), wheat, and pulses were cultivated .
New Crafts and Specialization: The use of iron led to new professions like iron-smiths. Other crafts like carpentry, leatherwork, and pottery became more specialized.
Trade and Commerce: The increased agricultural surplus led to trade. Local trade grew, and long-distance trade (possibly with Babylon) began .
Use of Money: The barter system continued, but coins (nishka, satamana) made of metal began to be used as a medium of exchange and store of value .
π§π€π§ 3.3. Society: The Firm Establishment of the Varna System
The relatively simple social structure of the Early Vedic period gave way to a complex, hierarchical society .
The Four Varnas: The four-fold division of society became rigid and hereditary.
Brahmins: Priests and scholars (highest status).
Kshatriyas: Rulers and warriors.
Vaishyas: Traders, farmers, and cattle-rearers (the common people, who were now taxed).
Shudras: Servants and laborers who served the upper three varnas. Their position was the lowest, and they were often excluded from rituals.
The Gotra System: The institution of gotra (clan lineage) became established to regulate marriage (prohibiting marriage within the same gotra) and establish social identity. Its first reference is found in the Atharva Veda .
The Ashrama System: The concept of dividing a person's life into distinct stages began to emerge, first mentioned in the Chandogya Upanishad . The first three stages were:
Brahmacharya (Student Life): Celibate study of the Vedas under a guru.
Grihastha (Householder Life): Married life, focused on family, social duties, and sacrifices.
Vanaprastha (Hermitage): Gradual withdrawal from worldly life, living in the forest with one's wife.
(The fourth stage, Sanyasa (Renunciation), was added later).
Position of Women: The status of women declined sharply. They were no longer allowed to attend assemblies. Their education was curtailed. Child marriages became more common, and their primary role became domestic .
π 3.4. Religion: Ritualism and the Beginnings of Philosophy
Religion in the Later Vedic period became complex, ritualistic, and dominated by the priestly class .
Changing Gods: The old Vedic gods like Indra and Agni lost their importance. New gods rose to prominence:
Rise of the Priesthood: The Brahmins became the most powerful class. They dictated the complex rules for the elaborate and costly sacrifices, which only the wealthy could afford.
Complex Rituals: Sacrifices became highly formalized and were believed to have inherent magical power. Animal sacrifice became common.
Emergence of Philosophy: As a reaction to the extreme ritualism, the Upanishads emerged, delving into deep philosophical questions about the nature of existence, the soul (Atman), and the ultimate reality (Brahman). This philosophical quest laid the foundation for later Hindu philosophy and for heterodox sects like Buddhism and Jainism .
π Chapter Summary: Early vs. Later Vedic Period - A Quick Comparison
This table summarizes the key differences for quick revision .
| Feature | Early Vedic Period (c. 1500–1000 BCE) | Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 BCE) |
|---|---|---|
| π Key Texts | Rig Veda | Sama, Yajur, Atharva Veda; Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads |
| πΊ️ Geography | Sapta Sindhu (North-Western India) | Ganga-Yamuna Doab (Northern/Central India) |
| π Polity | Tribal Chiefdom (Jana) . King's power limited by Sabha & Samiti. | Territorial Kingdoms (Janapada) . King's power absolute, with grand sacrifices. |
| π° Economy | Pastoral. Wealth measured in cattle. Barter system. | Settled Agriculture. Rice, wheat become main crops. Use of money begins. |
| ⚖️ Society | Relatively Egalitarian. Varna system not rigid. Women had high status. | Highly Stratified. Rigid, hereditary Varna system. Gotra system emerges. Women's status declines. |
| π Religion | Simple Nature Worship. Indra & Agni chief gods. No temples or idols. | Complex Ritualism. Prajapati & Vishnu rise. Priesthood powerful. Upanishadic philosophy emerges. |
| π§ Technology | Copper/Bronze (ayas) | Iron (shyama/krishna ayas) |
π Key Takeaway for PSTET: The Vedic Age marks a fundamental transition in Indian history. From a simple, pastoral, and kinship-based society, it evolved into a complex, agrarian, and class-based society. The ideas, rituals, and social structures (Varna and Ashrama) that crystallized during this period became the lasting pillars of Indian civilization, influencing everything from law and philosophy to social relations for millennia to come.
We hope this detailed chapter serves as a valuable resource for your PSTET preparation. Good luck
