Chapter 6: Language, Thought, and Communication
🗣️ Chapter Overview
Welcome to Chapter 6 of your PSTET CDP journey! This chapter explores the fascinating relationship between language and thought—how children learn to speak, how talking shapes their thinking, and how communication serves as a bridge between the child's inner world and the social world of family, peers, and teachers. Understanding these processes is essential for every teacher who wants to support children's cognitive and linguistic development.
| Section | Topic | PSTET Weightage |
|---|---|---|
| 6.1 | Relationship between Language and Thought: Piaget vs. Vygotsky | Very High |
| 6.2 | Language Development in Children: Basic Processes and Stages | High |
| 6.3 | Language as a Social Tool: Communication, Learning, and Meaning | High |
6.1 Relationship Between Language and Thought: Piaget vs. Vygotsky
🎯 Learning Objectives
After studying this section, you will be able to:
Compare and contrast Piaget's and Vygotsky's views on the relationship between language and thought
Explain the concept and function of private speech
Apply these theoretical perspectives to classroom observations
The Fundamental Question
For decades, psychologists have debated a fundamental question: Which comes first—language or thought? Do we think in words, or do we have thoughts that we then put into words? The answer to this question has profound implications for teaching and learning.
📌 PSTET Key Point: The relationship between language and thought is bidirectional and complex. Two major theorists—Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky—offered contrasting explanations that continue to influence educational practice today .
Piaget's View: Thought Leads Language
For Piaget, thought precedes and shapes language. Cognitive development is primary, and language is just one manifestation of the child's underlying cognitive abilities .
PIAGET'S VIEW: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ──────► LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT (Thinking develops first) (Language expresses thought)
Piaget's Stages and Language
| Piaget's Stage | Age Range | Language Characteristics | Relationship to Thought |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sensorimotor | 0-2 years | Pre-linguistic; cooing, babbling | Language emerges as symbolic function develops |
| Preoperational | 2-7 years | Rapid vocabulary growth; egocentric speech | Language reflects pre-logical thinking |
| Concrete Operational | 7-11 years | More socialized speech | Language shows logical patterns |
| Formal Operational | 11+ years | Abstract, hypothetical language | Language expresses abstract thought |
Piaget on Egocentric Speech
Piaget observed that young children often talk to themselves while playing or solving problems. He called this egocentric speech and interpreted it as:
💡 Piaget's Bottom Line: Language is a product of cognitive development, not its cause. Children can only use language structures that match their current level of cognitive development.
Vygotsky's View: Language and Thought Merge
Vygotsky proposed a radically different view. He argued that language and thought have separate roots but merge around age two to create a powerful new form of human consciousness .
VYGOTSKY'S VIEW: Pre-linguistic Thought Pre-intellectual Language │ │ └───────────┬───────────────┘ ▼ LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT MERGE │ ▼ Verbal Thinking (Inner Speech)
The Developmental Sequence
Vygotsky on Private Speech
What Piaget called "egocentric speech," Vygotsky reinterpreted as private speech—a crucial developmental tool .
🔬 Research on Private Speech
Recent studies have confirmed and extended Vygotsky's insights about private speech :
Crib Speech: A Special Form
Research has identified crib speech—private speech that occurs at bedtime when toddlers are alone in their rooms . This speech:
Includes retelling significant experiences
Contains questions and answers
Involves word play and experimentation with language forms
Is often richer than daytime communicative speech
Functions to consolidate experience and practice language
📌 PSTET Key Point: Crib speech is NOT a by-product of immaturity but an important mechanism for language practice and consolidation of experience .
Comparative Summary: Piaget vs. Vygotsky
| Aspect | Piaget | Vygotsky |
|---|---|---|
| Relationship | Thought → Language | Thought + Language merge |
| Child's self-talk | Egocentric speech (immature, non-functional) | Private speech (cognitive tool) |
| Function of self-talk | Accompanies action, no real purpose | Guides thinking, problem-solving, self-regulation |
| Developmental trajectory | Declines and disappears | Internalizes to become inner speech |
| Origin | Reflects cognitive egocentrism | Originates in social speech |
| Relation to task difficulty | Not specified | Increases with appropriate challenge (ZPD) |
| Classroom implication | Accept as normal; will disappear naturally | Encourage; it helps learning |
🏫 PSTET Classroom Application
| What You Might Observe | Piaget's Interpretation | Vygotsky's Interpretation | Teacher Action |
|---|---|---|---|
| Child talks to self while solving puzzle | Egocentric speech; will disappear | Private speech; tool for thinking | Allow it; don't discourage |
| Child whispers instructions during task | Immature behavior | Self-regulation developing | Observe; note task difficulty |
| Child's private speech increases with hard task | Not relevant | Child is in ZPD, using language to learn | Provide appropriate support |
| Child with learning difficulties uses repetitive private speech | Delayed development | Needs intervention to develop task-relevant private speech | Provide structured guidance |
📝 PSTET Practice Question (Language-Thought Relationship)
Q1. According to Vygotsky, private speech in children:
a) Is a sign of cognitive immaturity
b) Should be discouraged in the classroom
c) Serves as a tool for self-regulation and problem-solving
d) Disappears completely by age 7
Answer: c) Serves as a tool for self-regulation and problem-solving
Q2. Piaget viewed children's self-directed talk as:
a) A cognitive tool that guides thinking
b) Egocentric speech reflecting cognitive immaturity
c) The foundation for inner speech
d) A sign of advanced development
Answer: b) Egocentric speech reflecting cognitive immaturity
6.2 Language Development in Children: Basic Processes and Stages
🎯 Learning Objectives
After studying this section, you will be able to:
Describe the stages of language development from birth to age 5
Distinguish between receptive and expressive language
Identify typical language milestones for primary school children
Recognize signs of language difficulties
What Is Language Development?
Language development refers to the process by which children learn to understand and use language to communicate. It encompasses both receptive language (understanding what others say) and expressive language (producing words and sentences to convey meaning) .
📌 PSTET Key Point: "Language development is a broad term which encompasses both what a child understands (comprehension) and what a child says (expression)" .
LANGUAGE COMPONENTS: ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE │ │ (Understanding) (Producing) │ │ ┌──────────────────┐ ┌──────────────────┐ │ │ │ • Comprehension │ │ • Vocabulary │ │ │ │ • Following │ │ • Sentence │ │ │ │ instructions │ │ formation │ │ │ │ • Understanding │ │ • Grammar │ │ │ │ questions │ │ • Articulation │ │ │ └──────────────────┘ └──────────────────┘ │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
The Five Basic Domains of Language
In language learning, every child must master five basic domains :
| Domain | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Phonology | The sound system of language | Distinguishing "bat" from "pat" |
| Semantics | Word meanings and vocabulary | Knowing that "dog" refers to a furry animal |
| Syntax | Rules for combining words into sentences | "The dog chased the cat" vs. "Chased dog cat the" |
| Morphology | Rules for word formation | Adding "-ed" for past tense; plural "-s" |
| Pragmatics | Social use of language | Taking turns in conversation; using polite forms |
The Three Stages of Early Language Development
Researchers have identified three distinct stages in early communicative development :
STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT: ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ STAGE 1: PERLOCUTIONARY (0-10 months) │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ • Unintentional communication │ │ │ │ • Infant produces behaviors (vocalizations, crying) │ │ │ │ that affect others but without intent │ │ │ │ • Parents interpret and respond │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ ↓ │ │ STAGE 2: ILLOCUTIONARY (10-12 months) │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ • Intentional communication begins │ │ │ │ • Child uses gestures and vocalizations deliberately │ │ │ │ • Shows intention to communicate │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ ↓ │ │ STAGE 3: ELOCUTIONARY (12+ months) │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ • First words appear │ │ │ │ • True linguistic communication │ │ │ │ • Words represent objects, actions, desires │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
Language Development Milestones: Birth to Age 5
Based on developmental research and health guidelines, here are typical language milestones :
Birth to 12 Months
12 to 24 Months
2 to 3 Years
3 to 5 Years
Language Development in Primary School Years (6-12 Years)
For PSTET, focus on the primary school child's language development:
Ages 5-7 Years
| Aspect | Development |
|---|---|
| Vocabulary | Understands and uses around 2,000-3,000 words by age 6 |
| Sentence Structure | Uses more complex sentences; articulates thoughts and feelings clearly |
| Cognitive Connection | Thinking remains largely intuitive and egocentric (Piaget) |
| Example | "I don't like broccoli because it tastes funny" — shows ability to express preferences |
Ages 7-9 Years
| Aspect | Development |
|---|---|
| Vocabulary | Exceeds 5,000 words |
| Metalinguistic Awareness | Begins to understand figurative language, idioms, and jokes |
| Cognitive Connection | Concrete operational thinking; understands cause-and-effect |
| Example | "If I add more water to the cup, it will overflow" — demonstrates cause-effect reasoning |
Ages 9-11 Years
| Aspect | Development |
|---|---|
| Vocabulary | May exceed 10,000 words |
| Narrative Skills | Tells stories with clear structure (character, setting, plot) |
| Discourse | Engages in discussions about various topics; writing becomes structured |
| Cognitive Connection | Beginnings of abstract thinking |
Ages 11-12 Years
| Aspect | Development |
|---|---|
| Language Use | Sophisticated use of nuances, sarcasm, humor |
| Abstract Discussion | Engages in debates about abstract concepts, ethics, social issues |
| Cognitive Connection | Formal operational thinking begins |
| Example | Debates environmental issues with well-reasoned arguments |
Receptive vs. Expressive Language: Key Distinction
Factors Influencing Language Development
Research has identified several factors that influence language development:
When to Be Concerned: Language Delays and Disorders
According to health guidelines, a child may need support if they :
| Concern | Description |
|---|---|
| Not meeting milestones | Not reaching typical developmental milestones for their age |
| Comprehension difficulties | Struggling to understand words or sentences at home or school |
| Instruction following | Unable to follow instructions or retain what has been said |
| Limited vocabulary | Using a limited vocabulary or unable to form sentences |
| Word-finding difficulties | Difficulty finding the right word to express ideas |
| Disorganized speech | Speech is muddled, disorganized, and difficult to follow |
Developmental Language Disorder (DLD)
Developmental Language Disorder is a condition where a child has significant, ongoing difficulties understanding and/or using language for no obvious reason .
Difficulties understanding and/or remembering what has been said
Difficulties learning and/or remembering new words
Difficulty expressing him/herself verbally
Immature language (sounds like a younger child)
Difficulty finding words
Difficulties with reading and/or writing
Difficulty producing words correctly (missing or substituting sounds)
🏫 PSTET Classroom Application
📝 PSTET Practice Question (Language Development)
Q3. By age 24 months, most children can typically:
a) Speak in full sentences of 5-6 words
b) Use approximately 50 single words and combine two words
c) Understand abstract concepts like justice
d) Use complex grammar correctly
Answer: b) Use approximately 50 single words and combine two words
Q4. A child who struggles to understand what others say but can speak relatively well may have difficulty with:
a) Expressive language
b) Receptive language
c) Articulation
d) Phonology
6.3 Language as a Social Tool: Communication, Learning, and Meaning
🎯 Learning Objectives
After studying this section, you will be able to:
Explain how children use language to communicate, learn, and construct meaning
Understand language socialization as a cultural process
Apply strategies to support language development in the classroom
Language as the Greatest Force of Socialization
"Language is a great force of socialization, perhaps the greatest that exists." — Edward Sapir
Language is not just a system of words and grammar—it is the primary tool through which children become competent members of their culture . Through language, children learn:
| What Children Learn Through Language | Examples |
|---|---|
| Social norms | Taking turns, politeness, when to speak and when to listen |
| Cultural values | What is important, what is valued |
| Relationship expectations | How to treat family, peers, elders |
| Emotional expression | How to express feelings appropriately |
| Identity | Who they are in relation to others |
Language Socialization: A Bidirectional Process
Language socialization concerns the role language plays in a person becoming a member of a social group . It involves:
LANGUAGE SOCIALIZATION: ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ CHILD LEARNS LANGUAGE ───► BECOMES COMPETENT │ │ IN SOCIAL GROUP │ │ ▲ │ │ │ │ │ └───────────────────┐ │ │ │ │ │ SOCIAL GROUP TEACHES │ │ │ LANGUAGE PRACTICES │ │ │ │ │ │ BIDIRECTIONAL: Child is active participant, not passive │ │ recipient [citation:3][citation:6] │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
Core Concepts in Language Socialization
| Concept | Description |
|---|---|
| Communicative competence | Skills for contextualized language use, not just grammatical knowledge |
| Cultural modulation | Even basic practices like "who talks to children" vary across cultures |
| Prompting routines | Children explicitly encouraged to speak (e.g., "Say juice!") |
| Triadic interaction | Speaker A prompts child B to address C (common in some cultures) |
| Language ideologies | Cultural beliefs about language and language learning |
Cultural Variations in Language Socialization
Research reveals fascinating cultural differences in how children learn language :
| Culture | Language Socialization Practice |
|---|---|
| Sesotho-speaking Basotho (Lesotho) | Prompting routines are typically triadic (adult prompts child to address another person), providing practice with different interlocutors |
| Kaluli (Papua New Guinea) | Children learn specific ways to request, share, or refuse that activate central relationships in Kaluli society |
| White middle-class Anglo-American | More dyadic (mother-child) prompting; children receive less input from male speakers than in some other cultures |
📌 PSTET Key Point: Without attention to cultural diversity, science risks interpreting behaviors of urban white middle-class families as universal strategies integral to language acquisition .
The "Web of Words" Metaphor
Cook-Gumperz (2012) offers a powerful metaphor for understanding language's role in socialization :
"Language acts as a web of words which supports the child's earliest attempts to construct socially acceptable communicative exchanges."
Children are "enmeshed in language from their initial entry into life"
Their earliest communicative acts are mediated through language
The "elasticity of the web of words" allows for multiple interpretations
Children are accredited the status of purposeful communicators even before their grammar supports it
This "polite fiction" gives children opportunities for correction and repetition
Language as Both Tool and Outcome
Language serves a dual role in socialization :
| Role | Description |
|---|---|
| Language as TOOL of socialization | Used by caregivers to teach, guide, and shape the child's understanding |
| Language as OUTCOME of socialization | The child's developing language reflects what they have learned about their culture |
Everyday Concepts vs. Academic Concepts
Vygotsky identified an important distinction that has implications for schooling :
| Concept Type | Source | Example | Educational Implication |
|---|---|---|---|
| Everyday (Spontaneous) Concepts | Daily life experience | "The sun rises in the morning" | Children bring these to school; may contain misconceptions |
| Academic (Scientific) Concepts | Formal instruction | "What appears as sunrise results from Earth's rotation" | Require deliberate instructional activity |
📌 PSTET Key Point: Children do NOT come to the classroom as a blank slate (tabula rasa). They bring pre-existent everyday concepts that may conflict with academic concepts and form the basis of many student misconceptions .
How Children Use Language to Learn
Children actively use language as a tool for learning in several ways:
Language and Executive Functioning
Language development is closely linked to executive functioning—the mental processes that enable children to plan, focus attention, remember instructions, and manage multiple tasks .
| Executive Function | Language Connection |
|---|---|
| Working Memory | Holding verbal information while processing it |
| Inhibitory Control | Using inner speech to resist impulses ("Stop, think") |
| Cognitive Flexibility | Understanding and using language to shift perspectives |
| Self-Monitoring | Using self-talk to assess and adjust performance |
The "Polite Fiction" of Childhood
A fascinating concept in language socialization is the "polite fiction" that adults maintain with children :
Children are treated as if they had conversational and social understandings far in advance of their apparent grammatical capabilities. This assumption only becomes realized in the course of further development.
What this means for teachers:
Treat children as competent communicators, even when their language is still developing
Assume they understand more than they can express
Provide rich language models without expecting immediate mastery
Create a safe space for communication attempts
🏫 PSTET Classroom Application: Supporting Language Development
Based on research and clinical guidelines, here are practical strategies for supporting language development in the classroom :
| Strategy | How to Implement |
|---|---|
| Get their attention | Say child's name or gently tap shoulder before giving instructions |
| Follow their lead | Observe what child is interested in and comment on it |
| Comment, don't just question | Instead of "What are you doing?" try "Wow, you rolled the ball!" |
| Keep language simple | Match language level to child's understanding |
| Use visual supports | Gestures, facial expressions, pictures, objects |
| Encourage all communication | Pointing, gestures, facial expressions, drawing, words |
| Make routines language-rich | Talk during breakfast, bath time, transitions |
| Give choices | "Do you want milk or juice?" (models words) |
| Provide processing time | Talk slowly; give child time to understand before expecting response |
| Model correct forms | If child says "him kick ball," respond "Yes, he kicked the ball!" |
Supporting Children with Language Difficulties
For children who struggle with language, additional strategies are needed :
| Strategy | Implementation |
|---|---|
| Repeat and rephrase | Repeat instructions or say them differently if not understood |
| Don't interrupt | Let child finish; interruption can disrupt thinking |
| Model, don't correct | Model correct form without drawing attention to error |
| Teach play skills | Practice turn-taking and listening through games |
| Use visual schedules | Support understanding of routines and expectations |
| Collaborate with specialists | Work with speech-language therapists when available |
📝 PSTET Practice Question (Language as Social Tool)
Q5. According to language socialization research, prompting routines in Sesotho-speaking Basotho communities are typically:
a) Dyadic (mother-child only)
b) Triadic (adult prompts child to address another person)
c) Non-existent (children learn without prompting)
d) Only used with boys
Answer: b) Triadic (adult prompts child to address another person)
Q6. The concept that children are treated "as if" they had conversational understanding beyond their grammatical ability is called:
a) Language delay
b) The polite fiction of childhood
c) Egocentric speech
d) Receptive language
Answer: b) The polite fiction of childhood
🔑 Chapter Summary for PSTET Revision
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ CHAPTER 6: QUICK REVISION │ ├─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ LANGUAGE-THOUGHT RELATIONSHIP │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ PIAGET: Thought leads language; egocentric speech = │ │ │ │ by-product of immaturity │ │ │ │ VYGOTSKY: Language and thought merge; private speech = │ │ │ │ cognitive tool for self-regulation │ │ │ │ PRIVATE SPEECH: Increases with task difficulty; │ │ │ │ predicts future performance │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT STAGES │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ PERLOCUTIONARY (0-10 mo): Unintentional communication │ │ │ │ ILLOCUTIONARY (10-12 mo): Intentional communication │ │ │ │ ELOCUTIONARY (12+ mo): First words │ │ │ │ BY 24 MONTHS: ~50 words, two-word combinations │ │ │ │ BY 5 YEARS: 5-6 word sentences, clear speech │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ LANGUAGE DOMAINS │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ PHONOLOGY (sounds) - SEMANTICS (meaning) │ │ │ │ SYNTAX (sentence structure) - MORPHOLOGY (word forms) │ │ │ │ PRAGMATICS (social use) │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ LANGUAGE AS SOCIAL TOOL │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ Greatest force of socialization │ │ │ │ Cultural variations in how children learn language │ │ │ │ Everyday vs. academic concepts │ │ │ │ "Web of words" supports communication attempts │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ MNEMONIC: "P-V-P-S" │ │ P - Piaget: Thought first │ │ V - Vygotsky: Language merges with thought │ │ P - Private speech = cognitive tool │ │ S - Social tool for learning culture │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
✅ Self-Assessment Checklist
Tick (✓) when you can confidently:
Compare and contrast Piaget's and Vygotsky's views on language and thought
Explain the function of private speech with research evidence
Describe the three stages of early language development
List typical language milestones from birth to age 5
Distinguish between receptive and expressive language
Identify signs of language delay or disorder
Explain language socialization as a cultural process
Provide examples of how language serves as a social tool
Apply classroom strategies to support language development
Answer PSTET-level questions on all topics
📝 Practice Questions for PSTET
Q7. Research on private speech has found that children with learning problems often:
a) Use more task-relevant private speech than typically developing children
b) Display private speech that is not task-related (chanting, repetitions) for longer periods
c) Show no private speech at any age
d) Internalize private speech earlier than typically developing children
Answer: b) Display private speech that is not task-related (chanting, repetitions) for longer periods
Q8. A 4-year-old child who can follow three-step instructions, knows color names, and speaks clearly enough for strangers to understand is demonstrating:
a) Delayed language development
b) Typical language development for age 4
c) Advanced language development
d) Possible Developmental Language Disorder
Answer: b) Typical language development for age 4
Q9. According to Vygotsky, the distinction between everyday concepts and academic concepts suggests that:
a) Children learn academic concepts naturally without instruction
b) Children come to school with misconceptions that require deliberate instructional activity
c) Everyday concepts are always correct and should replace academic concepts
d) Academic concepts develop spontaneously from everyday experience
Answer: b) Children come to school with misconceptions that require deliberate instructional activity
Q10. Which of the following strategies is MOST helpful for supporting a child with language difficulties?
a) Correcting every grammatical error immediately
b) Asking many questions to check understanding
c) Modeling correct language forms without drawing attention to errors
d) Discouraging nonverbal communication
Answer: c) Modeling correct language forms without drawing attention to errors
📚 References for Further Reading
ScienceDirect. (2023). Child Language. Topics in Cognitive Science
UPMC Health Library. (2025). Speech and Language Development
MIT Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. (2025). Language Socialization
Cook-Gumperz, J. (2012). Caught in a Web of Words: Some Considerations on Language Socialization and Language Acquisition. De Gruyter
Cambridge University Press. (2012). Language as tool in the socialization and apprehension of cultural meanings
Next Chapter Preview: Chapter 7 - Individual Differences Among Learners
We will explore how diversity in language, caste, gender, community, and religion creates unique learners and how teachers can address these differences.
