Chapter 7: The First Empire: The Mauryas
🎯 Focus: The emergence of India's first pan-Indian empire and the art of statecraft.
🗺️ Theme: Understanding how the Mauryas created a centralized imperial system, the transformative reign of Ashoka, and the enduring legacy of their art and ideas.
✨ Introduction: The Dawn of an Imperial Age
Imagine an empire stretching from the Hindu Kush mountains in the northwest to the delta of the Kaveri river in the south, from the oxus valley to the brahmaputra . This was the Mauryan Empire (c. 322 BCE – 185 BCE), the first and one of the largest empires ever to grace the Indian subcontinent. For the first time, a vast mosaic of diverse kingdoms, republics, and cultures was brought under a single, unified political authority . This chapter is not just about kings and conquests; it is about the birth of a sophisticated system of governance, a transformative experiment in righteous rule, and the creation of an artistic legacy that still defines India's identity today. For a PSTET teacher, understanding the Mauryas is crucial because it represents the foundational moment of Indian imperial history, statecraft, and cultural symbolism.
⚔️ Section 1: The Architects of Empire - The Rise of the Mauryas
The rise of the Mauryas was a direct response to the political chaos and foreign invasions that marked the 4th century BCE. The backdrop was set by Alexander's invasion of northwestern India in 326 BCE, which, though short-lived, shattered the existing small kingdoms and created a power vacuum . It was in this turbulent environment that a young man, guided by a genius strategist, rose to forge an empire.
1.1. The Visionary and the Strategist: Chandragupta and Chanakya
🤴 The Founder - Chandragupta Maurya (c. 322–298 BCE): Chandragupta, a man of humble origins (referred to as 'Vrishala' and 'Kulahina' in the play Mudrarakshasa), is said to have belonged to the Moriya clan of the Shakyas . The name 'Maurya' itself is believed to be derived from 'mora' (peacock), as the region they inhabited was abundant with peacocks .
🧠 The Kingmaker - Chanakya (Kautilya): The real architect of the Mauryan Empire was Chanakya, also known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta . He was a Brahmin teacher from Taxila who was insulted by the Nanda king. Vowing to overthrow the Nanda dynasty, he spotted the potential in the young Chandragupta. Chanakya's masterpiece, the Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy, became the blueprint for the Mauryan administrative system .
⚔️ 1.2. Overthrowing the Nandas and Expanding the Empire
Guided by Chanakya's wisdom, Chandragupta raised an army and overthrew the unpopular Nanda dynasty of Magadha around 322 BCE, establishing the Mauryan rule .
Conquest of the Northwest: After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, Chandragupta turned his attention to the northwest. He successfully challenged and defeated Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander's generals, who had inherited the eastern part of Alexander's empire .
The Mauryan-Seleucid Treaty (c. 305 BCE): This conflict ended in a historic peace treaty with far-reaching consequences:
Territorial Gains: Seleucus ceded the vast territories of Gandhara, Kabul, Herat, and Baluchistan to Chandragupta .
Matrimonial Alliance: A marriage alliance was concluded, possibly involving a Seleucid princess marrying Chandragupta or a Mauryan prince.
Diplomatic Exchange: Seleucus sent the Greek ambassador Megasthenes to the Mauryan court at Pataliputra. Megasthenes' book, Indica, though lost, provides invaluable fragments of information about Mauryan society and administration .
By the end of his reign, Chandragupta had unified nearly the entire Indian subcontinent under his rule, from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea.
1.3. The Successors: Bindusara and the Stage for Ashoka
Bindusara (c. 298–272 BCE): Chandragupta's son, Bindusara, inherited a vast empire and continued his father's expansionist policies. He is said to have conquered the "land between the two seas" (the Deccan), bringing almost all of peninsular India under Mauryan control, except for Kalinga (modern Odisha) and the extreme south . He maintained friendly relations with the Hellenistic world and received Dionysius, an ambassador from Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt .
🏛️ Section 2: The Art of Governance - Mauryan Administration
The Mauryan Empire's greatest achievement was its highly centralized and efficient administrative machinery, which allowed a single authority to govern millions of people across a subcontinent. Our primary sources for this are the Arthashastra of Kautilya and the accounts of Megasthenes .
👑 2.1. Central Administration: The King and His Council
The Emperor (Samrat): The king was the supreme authority, the head of the executive, legislature, judiciary, and the military. However, he was not a despot. The Arthashastra emphasizes the king's duty to ensure the happiness of his subjects ("In the happiness of the subjects lies the king's happiness") .
Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers): The king was assisted by a council of ministers called Mantris, headed by the Mantriparishad-adhyakshya (Prime Minister) .
Hierarchy of Officials: The Arthashastra mentions a complex hierarchy of officials :
| Category | Role & Responsibilities |
|---|---|
| Tirthas | The 18 highest-ranking officials, holding crucial administrative portfolios. |
| Adhyakshyas | 20 superintendents in charge of various departments like commerce, agriculture, mines, gold, ships, etc., forming a kind of secretariat. |
| Mahamattas | Higher-ranking officials with specific responsibilities, often mentioned in Ashokan edicts (e.g., Dhamma Mahamatta). |
| Amatyas | High-ranking civil servants and secretaries with administrative and judicial duties. |
| Yuktas | Subordinate officers in charge of revenue collection. |
🗺️ 2.2. Provincial and Local Administration
The vast empire was divided into provinces for efficient management.
Provinces: The empire was divided into four or five major provinces, often ruled by Kumaras (royal princes) as viceroys. Key provincial capitals were Taxila (northwest), Ujjain (west), and Suvarnagiri (south) .
Districts: Provinces were further subdivided into districts. Key officials included:
The Village (Gram): The lowest unit of administration was the village, headed by the Gramika. Villages enjoyed considerable autonomy in their local affairs .
🏙️ 2.3. Municipal Administration: The Six Committees
Megasthenes provides a fascinating account of the municipal administration of the capital city, Pataliputra. A city commission of 30 members was divided into six boards of five members each :
| Board | Responsibilities |
|---|---|
| First Board | Fixed wages and looked after manufactured goods and artisans. |
| Second Board | Arranged for the welfare of foreign dignitaries, tourists, and businessmen. |
| Third Board | Maintained records and registrations of births and deaths. |
| Fourth Board | Looked after manufactured goods and the sale of commodities. |
| Fifth Board | Regulated trade, issued licenses, and checked weights and measures. |
| Sixth Board | Collected sales taxes (usually one-tenth of the price). |
🕵️ 2.4. The Espionage System
The Mauryan state maintained a highly sophisticated espionage system to keep the emperor informed about his officials, the public mood, and potential conspiracies .
Types of Spies: There were two main types: Sansthana (stationary spies) and Sanchari (wandering spies).
Gudhapurushas: These were secret agents or detectives who infiltrated all levels of society.
Vishakanyas: The legendary use of "poison damsels" is also mentioned in some texts.
💂 2.5. The Military and Economy
Military: The Mauryan army was a formidable fighting force, consisting of infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants. The Senapati (commander-in-chief) was a key official. The use of elephants was a speciality, terrifying enemy troops .
Economic Framework: The state played an active role in the economy.
🕊️ Section 3: Ashoka and His Dhamma - The Transformation of an Empire
The third and greatest Mauryan emperor was Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE). His reign marks a pivotal moment, not just in Indian history, but in world history, as it saw a powerful emperor renounce violence and dedicate himself to a policy of moral conquest.
3.1. Early Life and Accession
Ashoka was the son of Bindusara. Buddhist traditions suggest he was a viceroy at Ujjain and Taxila before a bloody succession war after his father's death, in which he emerged victorious . Early inscriptions refer to him as Devanampiya ("Beloved of the Gods") and Piyadassi ("Gracious of Mien") .
⚔️ 3.2. The Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE) - The Turning Point
The event that transformed Ashoka's life and the nature of his empire was the conquest of Kalinga (modern Odisha). The details of this brutal war are vividly described in his own words in Rock Edict XIII .
The Horror of War: The edict states that 1,00,000 people were killed, 1,50,000 were deported, and countless others perished from disease and famine in the aftermath .
The Transformation: Walking on the battlefields of Kalinga, Ashoka was filled with deep remorse and sorrow. The sight of so much death and suffering led him to renounce the policy of military conquest (Bherighosha - sound of war) and embrace the policy of moral conquest (Dhammaghosha - sound of Dhamma) .
☸️ 3.3. Ashoka's Dhamma: A Policy of Righteousness
Ashoka's Dhamma was not a new religion. It was a set of ethical principles and a code of conduct he hoped would create a harmonious, tolerant, and peaceful society . He did not establish a state religion but promoted a common code of conduct.
Core Principles of Dhamma (derived from his edicts) :
Non-violence (Ahimsa): Respect for all living beings. He banned animal sacrifices and drastically reduced the killing of animals in the royal kitchen.
Toleration (Sectarian Harmony): He respected all religious sects and urged people to do the same. Rock Edict XII states, "I honor all sects and both ascetics and laymen, with gifts and various forms of recognition."
Obedience to Elders: Respect for parents, teachers, and elders.
Kindness and Generosity: Good behavior towards servants, slaves, and the poor. He also stressed generosity towards ascetics and brahmins.
Truthfulness and Purity of Heart.
Concern for the Welfare of All: He described all men as his children and took an active interest in their welfare.
📜 3.4. Propagation of Dhamma: The Edicts
Ashoka is the first Indian king to speak to us directly through his inscriptions. He had his messages of Dhamma engraved on rocks and pillars throughout his empire. To date, 33 edicts have been found in 47 different locations across India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan . They can be categorized as follows :
| Type of Edict | Number | Key Content |
|---|---|---|
| Major Rock Edicts | 14 | The most important set, outlining the principles of Dhamma, his policies, and the Kalinga War. |
| Minor Rock Edicts | 3 | Shorter, more personal messages, often expressing his personal faith and summarizing Dhamma. |
| Major Pillar Edicts | 7 | Later edicts inscribed on pillars, summarizing his later thoughts and policies, often more theological. |
| Minor Pillar Edicts | 3 | Deal with management of the Sangha and other specific matters. |
Languages and Scripts: Ashoka used the languages of the people. Most edicts in the subcontinent are in Prakrit language written in the Brahmi script. In the northwest, Prakrit was written in Kharosthi script, and in Afghanistan, they were inscribed in Greek and Aramaic .
Key Edicts to Remember:
Rock Edict I: Bans animal sacrifices and festive gatherings.
Rock Edict II: Mentions medical facilities for humans and animals, and the planting of medicinal herbs.
Rock Edict III: Discusses the practice of liberality and kindness.
Rock Edict XII: Deals with religious toleration and respect for all sects.
Rock Edict XIII: Provides details of the Kalinga War and his subsequent conversion to Dhamma. It also mentions contemporary Hellenistic kings (Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander) to whom Ashoka sent peace missions.
Pillar Edict VII: Summarizes his efforts to promote Dhamma, including the appointment of Dhamma Mahamattas (special officers to spread Dhamma).
🌍 3.5. Patronage of Buddhism and Foreign Missions
While his Dhamma was for all, Ashoka personally became a devout Buddhist. He patronized the religion, visited Bodh Gaya and Lumbini, and is said to have built 84,000 stupas. He sent Buddhist missionaries far and wide, including to Sri Lanka (his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra), Burma, and the Hellenistic kingdoms in West Asia, effectively transforming Buddhism into a world religion .
🏺 Section 4: A Legacy in Stone - Mauryan Art and Architecture
The Mauryan period, especially under Ashoka, marked a revolutionary transition in Indian art from the use of perishable materials like wood to durable materials like stone . It was a royal art, grand in conception and exquisite in execution.
🏛️ 4.1. Palatial Architecture
Palace at Pataliputra: Greek ambassador Megasthenes described the royal palace as one of the greatest creations of mankind. Excavations at Kumrahar (near Patna) have revealed the remains of a massive 80-pillared hall, with a high polished finish that is characteristic of Mauryan art. The palace was surrounded by parks, fish ponds, and ornamental trees .
🪨 4.2. The Pillars of Ashoka
The most distinctive and magnificent examples of Mauryan art are the monolithic pillars erected by Ashoka throughout his empire .
Material and Polish: They were carved from two types of stone—spotted red and white sandstone from Mathura, and fine-grained, buff-coloured hard sandstone from Chunar (near Varanasi). The pillars were given a distinctive highly polished finish (Mauryan polish) that makes them gleam like enamel.
Structure: Each pillar is a single piece of stone, up to 50 feet high and weighing up to 50 tons. They consist of a shaft and a capital (the top part).
The Capital: The capital is the most artistically significant part. It features a single animal or group of animals (lion, bull, elephant) crowning a lotus-shaped abacus. The most famous of these is the Lion Capital at Sarnath.
🦁 4.3. The Sarnath Lion Capital: Our National Emblem
This magnificent capital was erected by Ashoka at Sarnath to mark the spot where Buddha delivered his first sermon .
Description: It features four majestic lions seated back-to-back on a circular abacus. The abacus is carved with the figures of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by Dharma Chakras (Wheels of Law). The entire capital originally rested on a massive inverted lotus capital.
Significance: The four lions symbolize power, courage, pride, and confidence. The animals on the abacus represent the four quarters of the world, and the chakras in between represent the spread of Dhamma in all directions. In 1950, this magnificent sculpture was adopted as the National Emblem of India, with the motto "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth Alone Triumphs) inscribed below it .
🛕 4.4. Stupas and Caves
Stupas: Ashoka is credited with building many stupas (brick and masonry mounds containing sacred relics of the Buddha). The Great Stupa at Sanchi was originally a small brick stupa built by Ashoka, later enlarged. Other stupas at Bharhut, Sarnath, and Amaravati also have their origins in the Mauryan period .
Rock-Cut Caves: Ashoka also patronized the construction of rock-cut caves for the Ajivika ascetics in the Barabar Hills near Gaya (e.g., Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves). These caves are the earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India, and their highly polished interiors are another stunning example of Mauryan polish .
🪔 4.5. Other Art Forms
Popular Art: In contrast to the polished court art, there was a vibrant tradition of popular art, including the Didarganj Yakshi (a statue of a female chauri-bearer, though its date is debated) and the magnificent stone elephant at Dhauli (Odisha), carved out of a live rock to draw attention to Ashoka's nearby edicts .
Terracottas: Thousands of terracotta figurines, mostly of mother goddesses, animals, and toys, have been found at Mauryan sites, giving us a glimpse into the life and beliefs of common people .
Pottery: The hallmark pottery of this period was the exquisite Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) , a glossy, shining ware, usually black in color, used by the elite .
🌅 Section 5: The Fading of the Empire - Decline and Aftermath
After Ashoka's death in 232 BCE, the Mauryan Empire began to decline. It survived for only another 50 years.
Causes of Decline:
Weak Successors: Ashoka's successors, like Dasharatha, Samprati, and Brihadratha, were weak and incapable of holding the vast empire together .
Financial Crisis: The immense expenditure on the army, bureaucracy, and public works, coupled with the halt of expansion after Kalinga, may have strained the treasury. Evidence suggests a debasement of currency in the later Mauryan period .
Pressure on the Economy: The highly centralized and extractive economy may have become unsustainable.
Revolts and Secessions: Provinces began to declare their independence. The northwest fell to foreign invasions, Kalinga broke away, and the Satavahanas rose to power in the Deccan .
The End: The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated around 185 BCE by his own commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga, who established the Shunga dynasty . With this, the first great empire of India came to an end.
🌟 Chapter Summary: Key Takeaways for PSTET
First Empire: The Mauryan Empire was the first pan-Indian empire, covering almost the entire subcontinent.
Founders: Founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the guidance of Chanakya (Kautilya) , author of the Arthashastra.
Administration: A highly centralized system with a king, council of ministers, a complex hierarchy of officials, and a well-organized provincial and local administration. The Arthashastra and Megasthenes' Indica are key sources.
Ashoka's Dhamma: A policy of non-violence, religious tolerance, and social welfare, adopted after the horrific Kalinga War. He propagated it through Rock and Pillar Edicts written in Prakrit and other languages.
Edicts: 33 inscriptions in Brahmi, Kharosthi, Greek, and Aramaic. Rock Edict XIII is the most famous for describing the Kalinga War.
Art and Architecture: Marked a shift to stone. Famous for the Pillars of Ashoka (with Mauryan polish), the Lion Capital at Sarnath (our National Emblem), the palace at Pataliputra, and rock-cut caves at Barabar Hills. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) is the characteristic pottery.
Decline: The empire declined due to weak successors, financial pressures, and revolts, ending with the assassination of Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Sunga.
🌟 Key Takeaway for PSTET: The Mauryan Empire represents the foundational moment of Indian political unity and imperial ideology. The Arthashastra provides a timeless treatise on statecraft, while Ashoka's edicts offer a unique window into the mind of a king who tried to rule with morality and compassion, leaving a legacy that is both politically and philosophically profound.
We hope this detailed chapter serves as a valuable resource for your PSTET preparation. Good luck!
