Chapter 9: Understanding the Learning Process
🧠 Chapter Overview
Welcome to Chapter 9 of your PSTET CDP journey! This chapter delves into the heart of teaching—how children actually learn. Understanding the learning process is essential for every teacher who wants to move beyond rote instruction to create meaningful, lasting learning experiences. We'll explore children's natural learning strategies, their role as scientific investigators, the social nature of learning, and the complex reasons why children sometimes struggle in school.
| Section | Topic | PSTET Weightage |
|---|---|---|
| 9.1 | How Children Think and Learn: Intrinsic Learning Strategies | High |
| 9.2 | Child as Problem Solver and Scientific Investigator | Very High |
| 9.3 | Learning as a Social Activity: Collaborative Strategies | High |
| 9.4 | Why Children 'Fail': Multi-faceted Reasons Beyond Ability | Very High |
9.1 How Children Think and Learn: Exploring Children's Intrinsic Strategies
🎯 Learning Objectives
After studying this section, you will be able to:
Explain how children naturally approach learning from an early age
Understand the role of metacognition in children's learning
Identify strategies to support children's intrinsic learning processes
The Natural Investigator: Understanding Children's Innate Learning Capacity
We have traditionally underestimated the capabilities and capacities of young children. Research increasingly shows that children are born investigators with sophisticated ways of thinking about the world . Even K–2 learners are capable of much more than we have assumed in the past.
📌 PSTET Key Point: Children are not passive recipients of information. From birth, they actively construct understanding of their world through exploration, questioning, and experimentation.
Children try to understand, make sense of, and influence the world around them. As they do so, they develop explanations of how the world works—explanations that may be sophisticated, but may not always align with accepted scientific understanding . These "alternative conceptions" are natural and form the foundation for future learning.
Learning Progressions: Building Understanding Over Time
Learning progressions are sequences of successively more complex ways of reasoning about a set of ideas . Learners move from novice to expert after extensive experience and practice, building on prior knowledge and developing increasingly more sophisticated explanations.
| Stage | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Naïve Understanding | Initial ideas based on everyday experience | "Plants get their food from the soil" |
| Emerging Understanding | Beginning to grasp scientific concepts | "Plants need sunlight to grow" |
| Developing Understanding | Connecting related concepts | "Plants use sunlight, water, and air to make food" |
| Sophisticated Understanding | Grasping complex relationships and mechanisms | Understanding photosynthesis as a chemical process |
The Role of Metacognition: Thinking About Thinking
Metacognition—the ability to think about one's own thinking—is a powerful tool to support early development . From as young as three years old, children can reflect on their thoughts and actions. When guided with intention, they can start to recognise their strengths, monitor their understanding, and adapt their approach to learning .
THE METACOGNITIVE CYCLE: ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ SELF-AWARENESS REGULATION TRANSFER │ │ ┌──────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐ │ │ │ Knowing │ ───► │ If stuck, │ ───► │ Apply │ │ │ │ yourself │ │ can change │ │ knowledge │ │ │ │ as a learner │ │ strategy │ │ to new │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ contexts │ │ │ └──────────────┘ └──────────────┘ └──────────────┘ │ │ │ │ "Am I paying "This isn't "How is this │ │ attention?" working—let like what │ │ "Is this too me try we learned │ │ hard?" something else" before?" │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
Research has shown that metacognition improves :
Emotional regulation
Self-awareness
Confidence in learning
Long-term academic success
It helps children pause, reflect, and make better choices—a skill just as important in the playground as it is in the classroom .
Children's Learning Strategies: Beyond Memorization
Children naturally employ various learning strategies. Research on ultralearning principles identifies several approaches that children can develop :
| Learning Strategy | Description | Classroom Example |
|---|---|---|
| Retrieval Practice | Pulling information out of memory rather than just reviewing it | Quizzing, flashcards, teaching concepts to peers |
| Drill | Breaking down complex skills through targeted practice | Focusing on specific multiplication facts before mixed problems |
| Directness | Learning by doing in real contexts | Measuring ingredients while learning fractions |
| Experimentation | Testing different approaches to find what works | Trying different note-taking methods |
🏫 PSTET Classroom Application: Supporting Intrinsic Learning
📝 PSTET Practice Question (How Children Think)
Q1. According to research from the University of Hawaiʻi, which statement best describes young children's thinking capabilities?
a) Children under age 7 are incapable of complex reasoning
b) We have traditionally underestimated children's capabilities; they are born investigators
c) Children learn best through passive listening
d) Children's thinking develops only through formal instruction
Answer: b) We have traditionally underestimated children's capabilities; they are born investigators
9.2 Child as a Problem Solver and 'Scientific Investigator'
🎯 Learning Objectives
After studying this section, you will be able to:
Explain the concept of children as natural scientific investigators
Implement inquiry-based and discovery learning approaches
Encourage student-generated questioning in the classroom
Children Are Born Investigators
One of the guiding principles highlighted in "A Framework for K–12 Science Education" states that "children are born investigators" . Students construct their own understanding of the natural world even before they learn about it in formal learning settings. Even if students lack a thorough understanding, their curiosity encourages them to ask questions and to consider solutions to problems they encounter .
📌 PSTET Key Point: This belief encourages teachers to cultivate classroom cultures that position students' ideas, knowledge, and abilities first, encouraging them to contemplate solutions for problems facing our society .
The Personal Inquiry Approach
Research led by The University of Nottingham and The Open University has shown that school children who took the lead in investigating science topics of interest to them gained an understanding of good scientific practice . This method of 'personal inquiry' helps children develop skills needed to :
Weigh up misinformation in the media
Understand the impact of science and technology on everyday life
Make better personal decisions on issues including diet and health
Understand their own effect on the environment
THE PERSONAL INQUIRY CYCLE: ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ 1. DECIDE TOPIC 2. PLAN INVESTIGATION │ │ ┌──────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐ │ │ │ What am I │ │ How will I │ │ │ │ curious │────► │ find out? │ │ │ │ about? │ │ │ │ │ └──────────────┘ └──────────────┘ │ │ │ │ │ │ ▼ ▼ │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 5. SHARE & DISCUSS 3. COLLECT DATA│ │ │ │ ┌──────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐ │ │ │ │ What did we │ │ What do we │ │ │ │ │ learn? │◄──────────│ observe? │ │ │ │ └──────────────┘ └──────────────┘ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 4. ANALYZE FINDINGS │ │ │ ┌──────────────┐ │ │ │ │ What does │ │ │ │ │ the data │ │ │ │ │ tell us? │ │ │ │ └──────────────┘ │ │ │ │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
Encouraging Student-Generated Questioning
Despite the recognized importance of inquiry, research has found that the practice of asking questions and defining problems is often overlooked in lessons, which continue to rely on teacher-driven questions or teacher-generated problems . The goal is to highlight this practice by making minor adjustments to lessons that have a big impact on encouraging question development .
Strategies to encourage student questioning :
| Strategy | Implementation |
|---|---|
| Cultivate curiosity | Create classroom culture that values student questions |
| Make space for inquiry | Allow time for students to explore their own questions |
| Model questioning | Demonstrate genuine curiosity about topics |
| Value all questions | Treat student questions as important contributions |
| Connect to real problems | Help students see how their questions relate to real-world issues |
Creating "Explorer Mode" in Learning
Internal curiosity can be considered the "Explorer mode" of learning . In this state, students are motivated not by the desire to achieve top grades (or worse, the fear of failure), but rather by the pursuit of answers to questions that matter to them. This is learning for the sake of learning—an ideal attitude that builds resilience and drives students to achieve their goals, no matter the obstacles .
The Role of Direct Experience
The key to inquiry-based instruction is basing it on direct experiences with the immediately available environment . Students' direct experiences are not limited to school—they learn from:
Everyday activities
Watching television
Play
Family excursions
Museums
🏫 PSTET Classroom Application: Fostering Scientific Investigation
| Instead of... | Try... |
|---|---|
| Telling students facts | Asking "What do you notice? What are you curious about?" |
| Providing all questions | Having students generate their own questions to investigate |
| Keeping learning in classroom | Taking investigations outdoors, connecting to real-world contexts |
| Focusing only on right answers | Emphasizing the process of inquiry and investigation |
| Teacher as sole expert | Positioning students as investigators and researchers |
📝 PSTET Practice Question (Child as Investigator)
Q2. According to research from The University of Nottingham, the "personal inquiry" approach to learning helps children:
a) Memorize more scientific facts
b) Develop skills to weigh up misinformation and understand science's impact on daily life
c) Avoid difficult topics
d) Rely entirely on teacher guidance
Answer: b) Develop skills to weigh up misinformation and understand science's impact on daily life
9.3 Learning as a Social Activity: The Social Context of Learning
🎯 Learning Objectives
After studying this section, you will be able to:
Explain why learning is fundamentally a social activity
Distinguish between different types of group learning
Implement effective collaborative and cooperative learning strategies
The Social Nature of Learning
As social beings, human beings learn with and from their peers . As members of the human community, we learn many things, often passively, by observing and copying others; we develop our individual identity against the context of the various social groups we belong to; and our worldview is often shaped by our communities and society at large .
📌 PSTET Key Point: Even formal learning can be a social activity. Exchanging ideas, sharing knowledge, and adding expertise to that of the group benefits students in multiple ways .
Theoretical Foundations of Social Learning
Social learning is grounded in several theoretical perspectives :
| Theoretical Perspective | Key Idea |
|---|---|
| Cognitive Theories | Social interaction creates cognitive conflict that stimulates development |
| Constructivist Theories | Knowledge is constructed through social negotiation of meaning |
| Socio-Cultural Theories | Learning occurs through participation in culturally organized activities |
| Motivational Theories | Social contexts influence motivation and engagement |
Types of Group Learning: Key Distinctions
It's important to distinguish between different ways of learning in groups :
| Type | Definition | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Peer Tutoring | One student teaches another | Clear expert-novice relationship; structured roles |
| Cooperative Learning | Students work together toward shared goals with individual accountability | Structured interdependence; individual assessment |
| Collaborative Learning | Students engage in shared meaning-making | Less structured; mutual engagement in shared task |
Key Elements of Successful Group Learning
Research identifies several elements essential for successful learning in groups :
ELEMENTS OF SUCCESSFUL GROUP LEARNING: ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ POSITIVE INDIVIDUAL SOCIAL │ │ INTERDEPENDENCE ACCOUNTABILITY SKILLS │ │ ┌──────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐ │ │ │ Students │ │ Each student │ │ Students │ │ │ │ need each │ │ must │ │ need │ │ │ │ other to │ │ contribute │ │ interpersonal│ │ │ │ succeed │ │ and be │ │ skills │ │ │ └──────────────┘ └──────────────┘ └──────────────┘ │ │ │ │ GROUP INTERACTION │ │ DEVELOPMENT STRUCTURING │ │ ┌──────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐ │ │ │ Groups need │ │ Interaction │ │ │ │ time to │ │ must be │ │ │ │ develop │ │ structured │ │ │ │ cohesion │ │ for learning │ │ │ └──────────────┘ └──────────────┘ │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
Why Students Sometimes Resist Group Work
Students often complain about group work in their courses for several reasons :
| Common Complaint | Solution |
|---|---|
| Scope or contribution not clearly defined | Clearly explain assignment scope, purpose, duration, and expected outcomes |
| Collaboration not monitored or graded | Provide evaluation rubric emphasizing individual participation |
| Activity doesn't discourage free-riding | Assign team roles to ensure all are invested |
| Some partners take activity less seriously | Monitor collaboration and facilitate discussion with each team |
Benefits of In-Class Collaborative Activities
Having students work with partners or in small groups during class sessions serves several important purposes :
Breaks up class time—taking a break from lecture
Helps shy students participate—less intimidating than whole-class discussion
Enables knowledge sharing—students share their understanding of material
Encourages preparation—students don't want to be the only unprepared person in their group
🏫 PSTET Classroom Application: Implementing Social Learning
📝 PSTET Practice Question (Social Learning)
Q3. According to research on group learning, which element is essential for successful cooperative learning?
a) All students receive the same grade regardless of contribution
b) Positive interdependence and individual accountability
c) Students always choose their own groups
d) No teacher monitoring during group work
Answer: b) Positive interdependence and individual accountability
9.4 Why Children 'Fail': Analyzing Multi-faceted Reasons Beyond Ability
🎯 Learning Objectives
After studying this section, you will be able to:
Analyze the multiple factors contributing to school failure
Distinguish between student-based, school-based, family-based, and societal factors
Implement strategies to address barriers to learning
The Complex Nature of School Failure
School achievement and failure seem to be the result of multiple social, political, and individual factors acting jointly in a complex way to foster learning . The origins of school failure are complex and are not limited to school, because family and community risk factors can foster or inhibit the individual's cognitive, social, and emotional development .
📌 PSTET Key Point: Ethnic minorities, students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, students with disabilities, and students taught in a second language are risk groups for school failure .
Categories of Factors Contributing to School Failure
Based on research, factors can be organized into several categories:
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO SCHOOL FAILURE: ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ INDIVIDUAL FAMILY SCHOOL │ │ ┌──────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐ ┌──────────────┐ │ │ │ • Cognitive │ │ • SES │ │ • Teaching │ │ │ │ • Emotional │ │ • Parental │ │ quality │ │ │ │ • Behavioral │ │ involvement│ │ • Curriculum │ │ │ │ • Motivation │ │ • Home │ │ • School │ │ │ │ • Self- │ │ environment│ │ climate │ │ │ │ regulation │ └──────────────┘ └──────────────┘ │ │ └──────────────┘ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ └────────────────────────┼───────────────┘ │ │ ▼ │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ SOCIETAL FACTORS │ │ │ │ • Poverty │ │ │ │ • Discrimination │ │ │ │ • Access to resources │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
Individual Factors
Family and Environmental Factors
School Factors
Contemporary Challenges: Post-Pandemic Cognitive Declines
Recent research has identified substantial challenges affecting student learning. A large-scale study (n = 47,687) focused on neurological changes in students following the COVID-19 pandemic and uncovered substantial decreases in most cognitive skills, with the largest declines seen in memory and flexible thinking .
Greatest declines seen in youngest learners and lower-income students
Declines in cognitive skills such as complex reasoning, memory, and executive functions directly contribute to declines in achievement
These declines may be the predominant cause of many challenges facing schools today
Even educators show moderate declines in adult cognition, affecting classroom management
The Digital Impact on Learning
Recent studies highlight significant impacts of smartphone and social media use on neurological functions of students :
| Finding | Implication |
|---|---|
| Excessive smartphone use can lead to structural brain changes | Affects emotional regulation and cognitive control |
| Results in increased impulsivity and reduced emotional stability | Impacts classroom behavior |
| High social media use linked to decreased attention spans | Reduces cognitive performance |
| Impaired working memory from digital distraction | Affects learning capacity |
A Two-Pronged Approach to Addressing Learning Challenges
Research suggests both short-term interventions and long-term objectives :
Short-Term: Focused Instructional Effectiveness
| Strategy | Implementation |
|---|---|
| Enhance memory | Use proficiency scales, chunk content, process content, record and represent content |
| Strengthen executive functions | Teach self-regulation and metacognitive strategies explicitly |
| Focus on literacy skills | Build comprehension and academic vocabulary |
| Establish tech-free zones | Reduce cognitive load from constant smartphone use |
| Incorporate mindfulness | Daily practices to build neurological resilience |
Long-Term: Cultural Shift to Humanized Schooling
A positive school culture is the foundation upon which successful educational experiences are built . The long-term vision must focus on:
Mastery-based learning components
Growth-based schooling
Strength-based teaching
Trauma-responsive practices
Culturally responsive approaches
The Executive Function Connection
Research strongly suggests that most problem behaviors are simply a result of young people being unable to effectively manage the environments in which they currently operate .
When students struggle with executive functions—including working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility—they cannot:
Follow multi-step instructions
Resist impulses
Adapt to changing demands
Regulate emotions
Sustain attention
🏫 PSTET Classroom Application: Addressing Barriers to Learning
| Barrier | Teacher Response |
|---|---|
| Weak executive functions | Teach strategies explicitly; provide scaffolds; break tasks into steps |
| Memory difficulties | Use retrieval practice, spaced repetition, connections to prior knowledge |
| Low motivation | Build relevance; connect to student interests; foster curiosity |
| Family stress | Connect families with resources; build supportive school relationships |
| Cognitive overload | Reduce distractions; chunk information; provide processing time |
| Anxiety/stress | Build in mindfulness; create psychological safety; teach coping strategies |
📝 PSTET Practice Question (Why Children Fail)
Q4. According to recent research on school failure, which statement best explains the relationship between student behavior and cognitive skills?
a) Problem behaviors are unrelated to cognitive abilities
b) Most problem behaviors result from students being unable to effectively manage their environments due to difficulties with executive functions
c) Behavior problems are entirely caused by poor parenting
d) Cognitive skills have no impact on classroom behavior
Answer: b) Most problem behaviors result from students being unable to effectively manage their environments due to difficulties with executive functions
🔑 Chapter Summary for PSTET Revision
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ CHAPTER 9: QUICK REVISION │ ├─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ HOW CHILDREN THINK AND LEARN │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ • Children are born investigators—capabilities │ │ │ │ traditionally underestimated [citation:2] │ │ │ │ • Learning progressions: novice → expert over time │ │ │ │ • Metacognition: thinking about thinking—develops │ │ │ │ from age 3 [citation:1] │ │ │ │ • Strategies: retrieval, drill, directness, │ │ │ │ experimentation [citation:5] │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ CHILD AS SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATOR │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ • "Children are born investigators" [citation:6] │ │ │ │ • Personal inquiry: students lead investigations │ │ │ │ of topics that interest them [citation:10] │ │ │ │ • Student-generated questioning is often overlooked │ │ │ │ but essential [citation:6] │ │ │ │ • "Explorer mode": learning driven by curiosity │ │ │ │ not fear [citation:9] │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ LEARNING AS SOCIAL ACTIVITY │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ • Humans learn with and from peers [citation:3] │ │ │ │ • Types: peer tutoring, cooperative, collaborative │ │ │ │ learning [citation:7] │ │ │ │ • Key elements: interdependence, accountability, │ │ │ │ social skills [citation:7] │ │ │ │ • Benefits: breaks lecture, helps shy students, │ │ │ │ encourages preparation [citation:3] │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ WHY CHILDREN FAIL │ │ ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ • Multiple factors: individual, family, school, │ │ │ │ societal [citation:4] │ │ │ │ • Risk groups: minorities, low SES, disabilities, │ │ │ │ second language learners [citation:4] │ │ │ │ • Post-pandemic: significant cognitive declines │ │ │ │ in memory and flexible thinking [citation:8] │ │ │ │ • Digital impact: smartphone use affects brain │ │ │ │ structure and function [citation:8] │ │ │ │ • Executive functions: key to managing learning │ │ │ │ environment [citation:8] │ │ │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ │ │ │ │ MNEMONIC: "M-I-S-F" │ │ M - Metacognition (thinking about thinking) │ │ I - Investigator (child as scientist) │ │ S - Social (learning with others) │ │ F - Failure (multi-faceted causes) │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
✅ Self-Assessment Checklist
Tick (✓) when you can confidently:
Explain how children naturally think and learn from an early age
Describe learning progressions and their role in education
Define metacognition and its three key processes
Implement strategies to encourage student-generated questioning
Explain the personal inquiry approach and its benefits
Distinguish between peer tutoring, cooperative, and collaborative learning
Identify the key elements of successful group learning
List multiple factors contributing to school failure
Explain the impact of post-pandemic cognitive declines on learning
Describe strategies to address executive function difficulties
Answer PSTET-level questions on all topics
📝 Practice Questions for PSTET
Q5. According to the A Framework for K–12 Science Education, which statement about children is emphasized?
a) Children are passive learners who need direct instruction
b) Children are born investigators who construct understanding before formal learning
c) Children cannot engage in scientific thinking until adolescence
d) Children's ideas should be ignored in favor of textbooks
Answer: b) Children are born investigators who construct understanding before formal learning
Q6. Research on metacognition shows that children can begin to reflect on their thoughts and actions as early as:
a) 12 years old
b) 7 years old
c) 3 years old
d) Only in adolescence
Q7. Which of the following is NOT one of the key elements of successful group learning identified in research?
a) Positive interdependence
b) Individual accountability
c) Competition between group members
d) Social skills development
Answer: c) Competition between group members
Q8. According to post-pandemic research on cognitive skills, the largest declines were seen in:
a) Only high school students
b) Youngest learners and lower-income students
c) Students from affluent backgrounds only
d) No significant declines were found
Answer: b) Youngest learners and lower-income students
Q9. The "personal inquiry" approach to learning, developed by The University of Nottingham, involves:
a) Students memorizing scientific facts from textbooks
b) Students taking the lead in investigating topics of interest to them
c) Teachers lecturing about scientific methods
d) Students working alone without guidance
Answer: b) Students taking the lead in investigating topics of interest to them
Q10. Research suggests that most problem behaviors in school result from:
a) Students deliberately choosing to misbehave
b) Students being unable to effectively manage their environments due to difficulties with executive functions
c) Poor parenting alone
d) Lack of consequences
Answer: b) Students being unable to effectively manage their environments due to difficulties with executive functions
📚 References for Further Reading
Nord Anglia Education. (2025). Helping Children Think About Thinking: A Guide to Metacognition
University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. (2025). STEM in Elementary Education (SEE) Learning Progressions
Frontiers in Psychology. (2022). School Achievement and Failure
Think Academy. (2025). Ultralearning for Kids: Deep Learning & Self-Directed Study Skills
Science and Children. (2019). Methods & Strategies: Encouraging Student-Generated Questioning
Marzano Resources. (2024). Chronic Underachievement and Disengagement: An International Crisis
Nord Anglia Education. (2025). Nurturing lifelong learners: How to help children discover their internal curiosity and drive
University of Nottingham. (2011). Giving children the power to be scientists
Next Chapter Preview: Chapter 10 - The Dynamic Classroom: Cognition, Emotions, and Motivation
We will explore the interplay between thinking and feeling, the role of motivation in learning, and factors that contribute to successful learning outcomes.
