Chapter 11: The Sultans of Delhi: The Delhi Sultanate
🎯 Focus: A chronological study of the five dynasties that ruled from Delhi.
🗺️ Theme: Understanding how a series of dynasties established, consolidated, and expanded Muslim rule in India, creating a new political, administrative, and cultural synthesis.
✨ Introduction: The Longest Islamic Empire in India
Imagine a period of over 300 years when Delhi became the center of a powerful empire, attracting travelers, scholars, and adventurers from across the Islamic world. This was the era of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE), a time when five successive dynasties ruled from the throne of Delhi, forging the first long-lasting Muslim empire in the Indian subcontinent .
The establishment of the Sultanate was a watershed moment in Indian history. It drew the subcontinent more closely into international and multicultural Islamic social and economic networks, leading to the development of the Hindustani language and the distinctive Indo-Islamic architecture . For a PSTET teacher, this chapter is crucial because it explains how medieval Indian polity, society, and culture were fundamentally reshaped by the interaction between Turkish, Persian, and indigenous Indian traditions.
This chapter will take you through the five dynasties—the Slave (Mamluk), Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi—focusing on their most important rulers, their innovative policies, and the administrative structures that held the empire together .
🏰 Section 1: The Five Dynasties of Delhi - A Timeline
The Delhi Sultanate was not a single, continuous dynasty but a succession of five distinct families, often connected by conquest and characterized by different ethnic origins and ruling styles.
⚔️ Section 2: Key Rulers and Their Policies
To understand the Delhi Sultanate, one must study the towering personalities who shaped its destiny. Each of these rulers left an indelible mark on the history of medieval India.
👑 2.1. Iltutmish (r. 1211–1236) - The Consolidator
Shams ud-Din Iltutmish was the third ruler of the Mamluk dynasty and is rightly considered the true founder of the Delhi Sultanate . A former slave of Qutb ud-Din Aibak, he rose to power after deposing the ineffective Aram Shah.
Consolidation of the Sultanate: When Iltutmish ascended the throne, the Sultanate was a fragile entity, threatened by rival Muslim rulers in Multan, Bengal, and Ghazni, as well as by rebellious Hindu chiefs . Through a series of brilliant military campaigns, he:
Shifting the Capital: He permanently moved the capital from Lahore to Delhi, establishing it as the political and cultural center of the Sultanate .
Administrative Reforms: Iltutmish organized the administration on a sound footing. He introduced the Iqta system, dividing the empire into large tracts of land (iqtas) assigned to nobles and officers in lieu of salary .
Coinage: He introduced the silver tanka (weighing 175 grains) and the copper jital, which became the standard currency of the Sultanate, facilitating trade and revenue collection .
The "Corps of Forty" (Turkan-i-Chahalgani): He organized a group of 40 powerful Turkic nobles to advise him, but this group later became a source of intrigue and power struggles after his death .
Legacy: Iltutmish died in 1236, leaving behind a secure and well-administered kingdom. Remarkably, he had nominated his daughter, Raziya, as his successor, recognizing her ability over his incompetent sons .
👸 2.2. Raziya Sultan (r. 1236–1240) - The First and Only Female Muslim Ruler of Delhi
Raziya's ascension to the throne was a revolutionary event in the Islamic world. She was the first and only female Muslim ruler of Delhi .
Accession: After Iltutmish's death, the nobles placed his ineffective son, Rukn ud-Din Firuz, on the throne. His disastrous rule, dominated by his mother Shah Turkan, led to widespread rebellion . Raziya, with the support of the people of Delhi, deposed Rukn ud-Din and ascended the throne in 1236 .
Challenges as a Female Ruler: Raziya faced immediate opposition from the Turkic nobility, who were unwilling to accept a woman as their sovereign. She further alienated them by:
Revolt and Downfall: The governor of Bhatinda, Malik Ikhtiyar ud-Din Altunia (her childhood friend and rumored romantic interest), led a rebellion. In the ensuing conflict, Yaqut was killed, and Raziya was defeated and imprisoned . She later married Altunia and attempted to regain the throne, but was defeated by her brother Bahram's forces. She died shortly after in 1240 .
Legacy: Despite her short reign, Raziya proved to be a capable ruler. She was known for her justice, concern for her subjects, and patronage of learning. She famously refused to be called "Sultana" (which implied a king's wife), insisting on the title "Sultan" .
⚡ 2.3. Alauddin Khalji (r. 1296–1316) - The Ambitious Empire Builder
Alauddin Khalji of the Khalji dynasty was the most powerful and ambitious ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. His reign was marked by military expansion, administrative centralization, and controversial economic reforms.
Southern Conquests: Alauddin was the first Sultan to undertake a systematic conquest of the Deccan. His trusted general, Malik Kafur, led campaigns deep into South India, raiding the Yadava capital of Devagiri, the Kakatiya capital of Warangal, the Hoysala capital of Dvarasamudra, and even the Pandyas of Madurai. These expeditions brought immense wealth to Delhi in the form of plunder and tribute .
Repelling Mongol Invasions: During his reign, the Mongols repeatedly attacked the Sultanate. Alauddin's well-equipped and well-paid army successfully repulsed these invasions, with victories at Jalandhar (1298), Kili (1299), and Amroha (1305) , earning him great prestige .
Market Control Reforms (The Price Control System): To maintain a large standing army at low cost, Alauddin introduced the most comprehensive price control system in Indian history . His objectives, according to the chronicler Ziauddin Barani, were to maintain a large army, keep soldier salaries low, and subjugate the Hindu traders whom he suspected of profiteering .
His market reforms included:
Enforcement: Alauddin's system was enforced through a strict hierarchy of supervisors and a network of secret spies. Reports from three independent sources were sent to the Sultan daily. Any violation was met with severe punishment, including expulsion from the city or heavy fines .
Legacy: Alauddin's reforms were successful in their time but were deeply unpopular with traders. They were revoked shortly after his death by his son. His southern campaigns, however, permanently altered the political landscape of India.
🤯 2.4. Muhammad bin Tughlaq (r. 1325–1351) - The "Man of Ideas"
Muhammad bin Tughlaq of the Tughlaq dynasty is one of the most enigmatic and controversial figures in Indian history. A brilliant scholar, philosopher, and calligrapher, he was also known for his harsh punishments and grandiose, often disastrous, projects. He has been called the "Man of Ideas" for his ambitious, but poorly executed, experiments .
Legacy: Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a paradox: a genius with flawed execution. Historians like Ibn Battuta, who visited his court, described him as a man who was quick to both reward and punish. His failures weakened the Sultanate irreparably, leading to its eventual fragmentation.
💧 2.5. Firuz Shah Tughlaq (r. 1351–1388) - The Builder Sultan
Firuz Shah Tughlaq, a cousin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, inherited a crumbling empire. Unlike his predecessor, he was a man of peace, focused on consolidating, building, and winning the loyalty of his subjects.
Public Works and Irrigation: Firuz Shah is best remembered as the "father of the irrigation system" in India . He was the first ruler to actively promote canal irrigation. He built five major canals, including the renovation of the Western Yamuna Canal (originally built in the Prithviraj Chauhan era), to bring water for cultivation around the new city of Hissar-i-Firuza (Hisar) .
Construction and Urban Development: He was a prolific builder who founded several new cities, including Firuzabad (near Delhi), Jaunpur (in honour of his cousin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, also known as Jauna Khan), Hissar, and Fatehabad. He built numerous mosques, colleges (madrasas), hospitals, dams, reservoirs (baolis), and gardens. In Delhi, he repaired the Qutub Minar after it was damaged by lightning and erected the Ashokan pillars (from Topra and Meerut) as decorative monuments near his palace .
Economic and Social Policies:
Revived the Iqta System: Made the system hereditary, allowing nobles to pass their iqtas to their sons. This won their loyalty but weakened central control.
Encouraged Slavery: He maintained a massive number of slaves (reportedly up to 180,000) for various works, which became a financial burden.
Patronage of Ulema: He was deeply orthodox and sought the support of the Muslim clergy (ulema), reversing the more secular policies of Alauddin Khalji. He imposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims more strictly.
Promotion of Learning: He was a patron of scholars and established many madrasas. His court historian, Shams-i-Siraj Afif, wrote the Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi.
🏛️ Section 3: Administration of the Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate developed a sophisticated administrative system that blended Islamic political traditions with Indian practices.
3.1. Central Administration
The Sultanate was a theocratic monarchy, where the Sultan's power was theoretically derived from the Caliph (though in practice he was absolute) . Key officials included:
| Post | Role & Responsibilities |
|---|---|
| Sultan | Head of state, chief executive, commander-in-chief, and highest judicial authority. |
| Naib | The Sultan's deputy, a powerful official who exercised authority on behalf of the Sultan. |
| Wazir | Head of the Finance Department (Diwan-i-Wizarat) . Managed state revenues and expenditures. |
| Diwan-i-Ariz | Military Department. Headed by the Ariz-i-Mumalik. Responsible for recruiting, paying, and inspecting the army. Alauddin Khalji's dagh (branding of horses) and chehra (descriptive roll of soldiers) systems were implemented here. |
| Diwan-i-Risalat | Department of Religious Affairs. Headed by the Chief Sadr. Dealt with religious matters, endowments (waqfs), and foreign policy. |
| Diwan-i-Insha | Department of Royal Correspondence. Headed by the Dabir-i-Khas. Responsible for all state correspondence and royal orders. |
| Barid-i-Mumalik | Head of the Intelligence Department (News Writers). Kept the Sultan informed about affairs in the provinces. |
🗺️ 3.2. Provincial and Local Administration: The Iqta System
The most important feature of the Sultanate's provincial administration was the Iqta system.
What is an Iqta? An iqta was an assignment of land (or revenue from a territory) given to a noble, soldier, or official in lieu of a salary . The holder of an iqta was called a Muqti or Wali.
Duties of a Muqti: The Muqti was responsible for collecting the revenue from his iqta, maintaining law and order, and leading his military contingent when called upon by the Sultan.
Evolution of the System:
Under Iltutmish: Iqtas were large territories, and the Muqtis had considerable power, often transferring a fixed sum (fauzi) to the center and keeping the rest.
Under Alauddin Khalji: He brought the iqtas under strict central control. He abolished the practice of Muqtis keeping surplus revenue and ensured all income was properly audited.
Under Firuz Shah Tughlaq: He made the iqta system hereditary, allowing sons to inherit their father's assignments. This greatly increased the power of the nobility and weakened central authority, contributing to the empire's decline.
🧑🤝🧑 3.3. The Role of the Nobility and the Ulema
The Nobility: The Sultanate's ruling class was primarily composed of foreign-born Muslims—Turks, Persians, Afghans—known as the Ashraf. They held all key administrative and military positions. This created a social divide between them and the indigenous converts (Ajlaf). The struggle between different factions of the nobility (e.g., the "Corps of Forty," the Khalji vs. Turkic nobles) was a constant feature of Sultanate politics.
The Ulema: The Muslim clergy (ulema) wielded significant influence. They legitimized the Sultan's authority, interpreted Islamic law (Sharia), and advised the court on religious matters. Sultans like Iltutmish and Firuz Shah Tughlaq actively sought their support. However, more assertive rulers like Alauddin Khalji subordinated them to the state's authority, ignoring their objections to his policies.
📊 Chapter Summary: Quick Revision Table
🌟 Key Takeaway for PSTET: The Delhi Sultanate was a formative period in Indian history. It established a new political order centered in Delhi, introduced Persian administrative and cultural norms, and created enduring institutions like the Iqta system. The contrasting policies of its greatest rulers—Iltutmish's consolidation, Alauddin's imperialism, Muhammad bin Tughlaq's idealism, and Firuz Shah's paternalism—illustrate the range of challenges and opportunities faced by this first great Islamic empire of India.
