Ch 4: Foundational Concepts of Language Learning (ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਸਿੱਖਿਆ ਦੇ ਬੁਨਿਆਦੀ ਸੰਕਲਪ)

 

Chapter 4: Foundational Concepts of Language Learning (ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਸਿੱਖਿਆ ਦੇ ਬੁਨਿਆਦੀ ਸੰਕਲਪ)

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📚 Chapter Overview

Section	Topics Covered	PSTET Weightage
4.1	Learning and Acquisition (ਸਿੱਖਣਾ ਅਤੇ ਗ੍ਰਹਿਣ ਕਰਨਾ)	4-5 Questions
4.2	Principles of Language Teaching (ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਸਿਖਾਉਣ ਦੇ ਸਿਧਾਂਤ)	5-6 Questions
4.3	Function of Language as a Tool (ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਦੇ ਕੰਮ ਅਤੇ ਇੱਕ ਸੰਦ ਵਜੋਂ ਵਰਤੋਂ)	3-4 Questions

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🎯 Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• ✅ Distinguish between language acquisition and language learning with clear examples

• ✅ Apply key principles of language teaching in classroom situations

• ✅ Understand how children use language as a tool for communication, expression, and social bonding

• ✅ Answer PSTET pedagogy questions confidently with conceptual clarity

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4.1 🔄 Learning and Acquisition (ਸਿੱਖਣਾ ਅਤੇ ਗ੍ਰਹਿਣ ਕਰਨਾ)

🧠 Understanding the Fundamental Difference

One of the most important concepts in language pedagogy is the distinction between language acquisition and language learning. This topic frequently appears in PSTET exams, and understanding it clearly is essential for every aspiring teacher .

[!IMPORTANT]
According to the PSTET syllabus, "learning and acquisition" is a key subtopic under Pedagogy of Language Development for both Paper I and Paper II .

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📊 Comparison Table: Acquisition vs. Learning

Aspect	Language Acquisition (ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਗ੍ਰਹਿਣ)	Language Learning (ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਸਿੱਖਣਾ)
Process	Natural, subconscious	Conscious, deliberate
Context	Informal environment (home, society)	Formal setting (classroom, institution)
Focus	Communication and meaning	Rules and structure
Awareness	Unaware of grammatical rules	Aware of rules being learned
Outcome	Fluency in natural communication	Knowledge about the language
Age Factor	Occurs naturally in early childhood	Can happen at any age
Error Correction	Through natural feedback	Through explicit correction
Example	A child learning Punjabi at home	A student learning Punjabi in school

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🔍 Defining Language Acquisition

Language acquisition is the process of getting aware of language in its simplest, most natural form . It is an unconscious process of rule internalization that happens through exposure to language in one's environment .

Key Characteristics of Acquisition:

Characteristic	Explanation	Example
🌱 Natural	Happens without formal instruction	Babies learning their mother tongue
🧠 Subconscious	Not aware of learning rules	Child uses correct grammar without knowing rules
👂 Input-based	Relies on listening and immersion	Understanding from context
💬 Communication-focused	Goal is to convey meaning	Pointing, gesturing, speaking
🔄 Trial and error	Learns from natural feedback	Child says "milk" and gets milk

The Classic Example :

Imagine a person from Chandigarh who speaks Punjabi relocates to Kolkata. After a period of time, he starts speaking Bengali as well by observing people around him. This is the process of acquisition of language—he is not aware of the literature of the language but has learned to communicate in Bengali after spending time with Bengali-speaking people.

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📚 Defining Language Learning

Language learning, in contrast, is the more structured or layered process of learning the language with technical aspects—starting from learning alphabets to writing, reading, listening, and speaking skills . It is a conscious process that is the product of formal teaching .

Key Characteristics of Learning:

Characteristic	Explanation	Example
🏫 Formal	Happens in structured settings	Classroom instruction
📝 Rule-based	Focuses on grammar and syntax	Learning verb conjugation tables
📖 Textbook-driven	Uses prescribed materials	Following a Punjabi textbook
✅ Error-conscious	Mistakes are corrected explicitly	Teacher corrects sentence structure
📊 Assessed	Progress is measured	Tests and examinations

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🔑 The Critical Difference: Level of Exposure

According to pedagogical research, the level of exposure to language can be considered the basic difference between language acquisition and language learning .

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🏡 Acquisition in Early Childhood

Children acquire their first language through a remarkable natural process:

Stage	Age	What Happens
🗣️ Cooing	0-3 months	Making vowel-like sounds
🔤 Babbling	4-6 months	Consonant-vowel combinations (ma-ma, da-da)
👶 One-word stage	12-18 months	Single words to communicate ("milk," "go")
🗨️ Two-word stage	18-24 months	Simple combinations ("more milk," "daddy go")
📝 Multi-word stage	2-3 years	Longer sentences with grammatical errors
🎯 Near-adult fluency	5-6 years	Complex sentences, most rules acquired

[!NOTE]
By age 5, children have essentially acquired the grammatical rules of their native language—all without a single formal lesson! This is the power of acquisition.

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🏫 Learning in Classroom Settings

Language learning typically happens in school and has these characteristics:

Aspect	In Acquisition	In Learning
Vocabulary	Learned through context	Memorized from lists
Grammar	Internalized naturally	Studied explicitly
Pronunciation	Imitated from models	Taught through drills
Motivation	Intrinsic (need to communicate)	Often extrinsic (grades, exams)

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📝 PSTET Application: Multiple-Choice Questions

Here are typical PSTET questions on this topic:

Question 1: What is the basic difference between language acquisition and language learning?

A) Age of the learner
B) Level of exposure to language ✅
C) Gender of the learner
D) Socio-economic status

Question 2: Which of the following is an example of language acquisition?

A) A student memorizing Punjabi verb forms
B) A child learning to speak by interacting with family ✅
C) A teacher explaining grammar rules
D) Writing answers in an exam

Question 3: Language acquisition is primarily:

A) A conscious process
B) A subconscious process ✅
C) A memorization process
D) A written process

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4.2 📋 Principles of Language Teaching (ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਸਿਖਾਉਣ ਦੇ ਸਿਧਾਂਤ)

🎯 Why Principles Matter

Effective language teaching is based on sound pedagogical principles. The PSTET syllabus specifically includes "Principles of language teaching" as a key topic . Understanding these principles helps teachers create effective learning environments.

[!IMPORTANT]
The principles of language teaching guide every decision a teacher makes—from lesson planning to classroom activities to assessment methods.

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📊 The 10 Key Principles of Language Teaching

Principle	Punjabi Term	Core Idea	Classroom Application
1️⃣ Motivation	ਪ੍ਰੇਰਣਾ	Learners need desire to learn	Create interest, connect to life
2️⃣ Imitation	ਨਕਲ	Language is learned by copying	Provide good models to follow
3️⃣ Practice	ਅਭਿਆਸ	Repetition leads to mastery	Drills, exercises, repeated use
4️⃣ Habit Formation	ਆਦਤ ਬਣਾਉਣਾ	Language becomes automatic	Regular, consistent practice
5️⃣ Simple to Complex	ਸਰਲ ਤੋਂ ਗੁੰਝਲਦਾਰ	Build from easy to difficult	Start with words, then sentences
6️⃣ Concrete to Abstract	ਮੂਰਤ ਤੋਂ ਅਮੂਰਤ	Move from real to conceptual	Use objects before ideas
7️⃣ Oral to Written	ਬੋਲੀ ਤੋਂ ਲਿਖਤੀ	Speech before writing	Speaking first, then writing
8️⃣ Contextualization	ਸੰਦਰਭੀਕਰਨ	Language in meaningful situations	Teach through stories, situations
9️⃣ Multiple Exposure	ਬਹੁ-ਪ੍ਰਦਰਸ਼ਨ	See/hear language many times	Recycle vocabulary, structures
🔟 Positive Reinforcement	ਸਕਾਰਾਤਮਕ ਪੁਸ਼ਟੀ	Encourage, don't discourage	Praise effort, correct gently

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🔍 Detailed Exploration of Each Principle

1️⃣ Principle of Motivation (ਪ੍ਰੇਰਣਾ ਦਾ ਸਿਧਾਂਤ)

Core Idea: Learning is most effective when learners are motivated. Motivation can be intrinsic (internal desire) or extrinsic (external rewards).

Type	Definition	Examples
🎯 Intrinsic	Learning for its own sake	Curiosity, interest, enjoyment
🏆 Extrinsic	Learning for external rewards	Grades, praise, certificates

Classroom Strategies:

• Connect lessons to students' lives

• Use interesting materials (stories, games, songs)

• Create a supportive, encouraging environment

• Set achievable goals and celebrate success

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2️⃣ Principle of Imitation (ਨਕਲ ਦਾ ਸਿਧਾਂਤ)

Core Idea: Language is learned by imitating models. Children learn their first language by imitating parents and others.

Classroom Application:

Activity	How It Uses Imitation
🔄 Repetition drills	Students repeat after teacher
🎭 Role play	Imitate real-life situations
🎵 Songs and rhymes	Imitate pronunciation and rhythm
👥 Choral speaking	Group imitation practice

Teacher's Role: Provide clear, correct models of language for students to imitate.

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3️⃣ Principle of Practice (ਅਭਿਆਸ ਦਾ ਸਿਧਾਂਤ)

Core Idea: Practice leads to mastery. Language skills develop through repeated use.

[!TIP]
The famous saying applies: "Practice makes perfect." In language learning, regular practice is essential for developing fluency.

Types of Practice:

Type	Description	Example
🔁 Mechanical	Repetitive drills	Substitution tables
🧩 Meaningful	Practice with understanding	Sentence completion
💬 Communicative	Real communication	Conversations, discussions

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4️⃣ Principle of Habit Formation (ਆਦਤ ਬਣਾਉਣ ਦਾ ਸਿਧਾਂਤ)

Core Idea: Language use becomes automatic through habit formation. Correct patterns become ingrained through repetition.

How Habits Form:

Classroom Implications:

• Provide consistent patterns

• Use regular drills

• Ensure correct practice (wrong practice forms bad habits)

• Give immediate feedback

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5️⃣ Principle of Simple to Complex (ਸਰਲ ਤੋਂ ਗੁੰਝਲਦਾਰ)

Core Idea: Move from easy concepts to difficult ones, from simple structures to complex ones.

Progression in Language Teaching:

Level	Simple	→	Complex
Vocabulary	Common words	→	Rare words
Sentence	Short, simple	→	Long, compound, complex
Grammar	Present tense	→	Past, future, conditional
Skills	Listening	→	Speaking, reading, writing

Example Sequence for Teaching "ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹਾਂ":

1. Single word: "ਜਾਣਾ" (to go)

2. Simple sentence: "ਮੈਂ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹਾਂ" (I go)

3. Expanded: "ਮੈਂ ਸਕੂਲ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹਾਂ" (I go to school)

4. Complex: "ਮੈਂ ਰੋਜ਼ ਸਕੂਲ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹਾਂ" (I go to school daily)

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6️⃣ Principle of Concrete to Abstract (ਮੂਰਤ ਤੋਂ ਅਮੂਰਤ)

Core Idea: Start with tangible, concrete things before moving to abstract concepts.

Concrete (ਮੂਰਤ)	Abstract (ਅਮੂਰਤ)
Objects you can touch	Ideas and concepts
Pictures and realia	Grammatical rules
Actions (running, eating)	States (happiness, freedom)

Classroom Application:

• Teach "ਕਿਤਾਬ" (book) by showing a real book

• Teach colors using colored objects

• Teach actions by doing them

• Then move to abstract concepts like "ਪਿਆਰ" (love) through stories and discussion

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7️⃣ Principle of Oral to Written (ਬੋਲੀ ਤੋਂ ਲਿਖਤੀ)

Core Idea: Speech comes before writing in natural language development. Children speak before they write.

Natural Order:

Listening → Speaking → Reading → Writing

Skill	Order	Why
👂 Listening	1st	Receiving language
🗣️ Speaking	2nd	Producing language orally
👁️ Reading	3rd	Understanding written language
✍️ Writing	4th	Producing written language

Teaching Implication: In early stages, emphasize oral work before introducing reading and writing.

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8️⃣ Principle of Contextualization (ਸੰਦਰਭੀਕਰਨ ਦਾ ਸਿਧਾਂਤ)

Core Idea: Language should be taught in meaningful contexts, not in isolation.

Without Context ❌	With Context ✅
Memorizing word lists	Learning words through stories
Studying grammar rules in isolation	Discovering rules in reading passages
Drill without meaning	Practice with real situations

Example:

• Isolated: Teaching "ਠੰਡਾ" as "cold" from a list

• Contextualized: "ਸਰਦੀਆਂ ਵਿੱਚ ਪਾਣੀ ਠੰਡਾ ਹੁੰਦਾ ਹੈ।" (In winter, water is cold.)

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9️⃣ Principle of Multiple Exposure (ਬਹੁ-ਪ੍ਰਦਰਸ਼ਨ ਦਾ ਸਿਧਾਂਤ)

Core Idea: Learners need to encounter new language items many times in different contexts to truly learn them.

Research Finding: A new word typically needs 5-16 exposures before it is truly acquired!

Ways to Provide Multiple Exposure:

• Reuse vocabulary in different lessons

• Include past words in new contexts

• Use stories that recycle language

• Play games that review previous learning

• Create wall displays of key vocabulary

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🔟 Principle of Positive Reinforcement (ਸਕਾਰਾਤਮਕ ਪੁਸ਼ਟੀ ਦਾ ਸਿਧਾਂਤ)

Core Idea: Encouragement and positive feedback motivate learners and build confidence.

Positive Reinforcement ✅	Negative Feedback ❌
"Good try!"	"That's wrong!"
"Excellent pronunciation!"	"You're not trying hard enough"
Celebrating small successes	Focusing only on errors
Encouraging risk-taking	Punishing mistakes

[!TIP]
| The sandwich technique: Praise → Correction → Encouragement

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📝 PSTET Practice Questions on Principles

Question 1: Which principle suggests that teaching should begin with spoken language before moving to written forms?

A) Principle of motivation
B) Principle of oral to written ✅
C) Principle of imitation
D) Principle of multiple exposure

Question 2: Using real objects to teach vocabulary is based on which principle?

A) Simple to complex
B) Concrete to abstract ✅
C) Habit formation
D) Positive reinforcement

Question 3: Repeating a word multiple times in different contexts supports which principle?

A) Imitation
B) Multiple exposure ✅
C) Motivation
D) Contextualization

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4.3 🛠️ Function of Language as a Tool (ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਦੇ ਕੰਮ ਅਤੇ ਇੱਕ ਸੰਦ ਵਜੋਂ ਵਰਤੋਂ)

🌟 Understanding Language as a Tool

Language is not just a school subject—it is a fundamental tool that children use for multiple purposes in their daily lives . The PSTET syllabus emphasizes understanding "how children use it as a tool" for communication, expression, and building social relationships.

[!IMPORTANT]
| For teachers, understanding the functions of language helps in designing meaningful learning experiences that connect with students' real lives.

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📊 The Seven Functions of Language (Based on Halliday's Model)

Function	Punjabi Term	Purpose	Child's Example
1️⃣ Instrumental	ਸੰਦ-ਵਾਚਕ	Getting things done	"ਮੈਨੂੰ ਪਾਣੀ ਚਾਹੀਦਾ ਹੈ।" (I want water.)
2️⃣ Regulatory	ਨਿਯੰਤਰਕ	Controlling others' behavior	"ਇੱਥੇ ਆਓ!" (Come here!)
3️⃣ Interactional	ਆਪਸੀ-ਸੰਬੰਧੀ	Building relationships	"ਤੁਸੀਂ ਮੇਰੇ ਦੋਸਤ ਹੋ?" (Are you my friend?)
4️⃣ Personal	ਨਿੱਜੀ	Expressing feelings/identity	"ਮੈਨੂੰ ਇਹ ਪਸੰਦ ਹੈ!" (I like this!)
5️⃣ Heuristic	ਖੋਜ-ਵਾਚਕ	Exploring and learning	"ਇਹ ਕੀ ਹੈ?" (What is this?)
6️⃣ Imaginative	ਕਲਪਨਾਤਮਕ	Creating and pretending	"ਚਲੋ, ਰਾਜਾ-ਰਾਣੀ ਖੇਡੀਏ!" (Let's play king-queen!)
7️⃣ Informative	ਸੂਚਨਾਤਮਕ	Conveying information	"ਮੈਂ ਅੱਜ ਸਕੂਲ ਆਇਆ।" (I came to school today.)

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🔍 Detailed Exploration of Language Functions

1️⃣ Instrumental Function (ਸੰਦ-ਵਾਚਕ)

Purpose: Using language to get things done, to satisfy needs and desires.

Child's Example:

• "ਮੰਮੀ, ਮੈਨੂੰ ਦੁੱਧ ਚਾਹੀਦਾ ਹੈ!" (Mommy, I want milk!)

• "ਉਹ ਖਿਡੌਣਾ ਮੈਨੂੰ ਦਿਓ!" (Give me that toy!)

Classroom Connection: Children use instrumental language to ask for materials, request help, or express needs.

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2️⃣ Regulatory Function (ਨਿਯੰਤਰਕ)

Purpose: Using language to control or influence others' behavior.

Child's Example:

• "ਚੁੱਪ ਕਰੋ!" (Be quiet!)

• "ਤੁਸੀਂ ਮੇਰੇ ਪਿੱਛੇ ਆਓ!" (You follow me!)

• "ਇਹ ਮੇਰੀ ਵਾਰੀ ਹੈ!" (It's my turn!)

Classroom Connection: This function appears in group activities, games, and peer interactions.

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3️⃣ Interactional Function (ਆਪਸੀ-ਸੰਬੰਧੀ)

Purpose: Using language to establish and maintain social relationships.

Child's Example:

• "ਹੈਲੋ! ਤੁਹਾਡਾ ਨਾਂ ਕੀ ਹੈ?" (Hello! What's your name?)

• "ਚਲੋ, ਇਕੱਠੇ ਖੇਡੀਏ!" (Let's play together!)

• "ਧੰਨਵਾਦ!" (Thank you!)

Classroom Connection: Greetings, polite expressions, and friendship-building talk.

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4️⃣ Personal Function (ਨਿੱਜੀ)

Purpose: Using language to express feelings, opinions, and individual identity.

Child's Example:

• "ਮੈਨੂੰ ਇਹ ਬਹੁਤ ਚੰਗਾ ਲੱਗਦਾ ਹੈ!" (I like this very much!)

• "ਮੈਂ ਉਦਾਸ ਹਾਂ।" (I am sad.)

• "ਇਹ ਮੇਰਾ ਹੈ!" (This is mine!)

Classroom Connection: Children express preferences, emotions, and ownership through language.

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5️⃣ Heuristic Function (ਖੋਜ-ਵਾਚਕ)

Purpose: Using language to explore the environment and learn new things.

Child's Example:

• "ਇਹ ਕਿਉਂ ਹੁੰਦਾ ਹੈ?" (Why does this happen?)

• "ਇਹ ਕੀ ਹੈ?" (What is this?)

• "ਇਹ ਕਿਵੇਂ ਕੰਮ ਕਰਦਾ ਹੈ?" (How does this work?)

Classroom Connection: Questions, curiosity-driven talk, and learning through inquiry.

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6️⃣ Imaginative Function (ਕਲਪਨਾਤਮਕ)

Purpose: Using language to create imaginary worlds, tell stories, and engage in pretend play.

Child's Example:

• "ਚਲੋ, ਮੈਂ ਟੀਚਰ ਬਣਦੀ ਹਾਂ, ਤੁਸੀਂ ਵਿਦਿਆਰਥੀ!" (Let's pretend: I'm the teacher, you're the student!)

• "ਇੱਕ ਸਮੇਂ ਦੀ ਗੱਲ ਹੈ..." (Once upon a time...)

Classroom Connection: Storytelling, role-play, creative writing, and dramatic play.

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7️⃣ Informative Function (ਸੂਚਨਾਤਮਕ)

Purpose: Using language to convey information, facts, and ideas to others.

Child's Example:

• "ਮੈਂ ਅੱਜ ਸਕੂਲ ਵਿੱਚ ਇੱਕ ਕਹਾਣੀ ਸੁਣੀ।" (I heard a story at school today.)

• "ਵੇਖੋ, ਮੈਂ ਕੀ ਬਣਾਇਆ!" (Look what I made!)

Classroom Connection: Sharing experiences, reporting, explaining, and presenting.

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🎯 How Children Use Language as a Tool

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🏫 Classroom Implications for Teachers

Understanding language functions helps teachers create a richer learning environment:

Function	Classroom Activity	Teacher's Role
🛠️ Instrumental	Providing materials, centers	Ensure language is needed to access resources
📋 Regulatory	Group work, games	Structure activities requiring negotiation
🤝 Interactional	Pair work, discussions	Create opportunities for peer interaction
💖 Personal	Journal writing, show-and-tell	Value and respect children's feelings
🔍 Heuristic	Experiments, projects	Encourage questioning and exploration
🎨 Imaginative	Dramatic play, storytelling	Provide time and space for creativity
ℹ️ Informative	Presentations, reports	Give authentic audiences for sharing

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📝 PSTET Practice Questions on Language Functions

Question 1: When a child asks "ਇਹ ਕਿਉਂ ਹੁੰਦਾ ਹੈ?" (Why does this happen?), which function of language is being used?

A) Instrumental
B) Heuristic ✅
C) Regulatory
D) Interactional

Question 2: A child saying "ਮੈਨੂੰ ਦੁੱਧ ਚਾਹੀਦਾ ਹੈ!" (I want milk!) is using language for which purpose?

A) Personal expression
B) Getting things done ✅
C) Building relationships
D) Sharing information

Question 3: Role-play and pretend play primarily engage which function of language?

A) Imaginative ✅
B) Informative
C) Regulatory
D) Heuristic

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📊 Chapter Summary Table

Section	Key Concepts	PSTET Focus
4.1 Learning & Acquisition	Acquisition = natural, subconscious; Learning = formal, conscious; Level of exposure is key difference	Definitions, examples, distinguishing features
4.2 Principles of Teaching	10 key principles: Motivation, Imitation, Practice, Habit Formation, Simple to Complex, Concrete to Abstract, Oral to Written, Contextualization, Multiple Exposure, Positive Reinforcement	Application in classroom, identifying principles from scenarios
4.3 Functions of Language	7 functions: Instrumental, Regulatory, Interactional, Personal, Heuristic, Imaginative, Informative	Identifying functions from children's language examples

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✅ Self-Assessment Checklist

• I can explain the difference between acquisition and learning in my own words

• I can give real-life examples of both acquisition and learning

• I remember all 10 principles of language teaching

• I can identify which principle is being applied in a classroom scenario

• I know the 7 functions of language and can give examples of each

• I understand how children use language as a tool beyond academics

• I can answer PSTET-style multiple-choice questions on these topics

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📝 Practice Questions for PSTET

Question 1: Which of the following best describes language acquisition?

A) Studying grammar rules in a textbook
B) Learning vocabulary through memorization
C) Picking up a language naturally through exposure ✅
D) Writing essays in the target language

Question 2: A teacher uses real fruits to teach the names of fruits in Punjabi. This is based on which principle?

A) Oral to written
B) Concrete to abstract ✅
C) Habit formation
D) Multiple exposure

Question 3: When children use language to make friends and play together, they are using which function?

A) Instrumental
B) Heuristic
C) Interactional ✅
D) Imaginative

Question 4: The principle of "simple to complex" suggests that a teacher should:

A) Start with speaking before writing
B) Begin with easy concepts before difficult ones ✅
C) Use many examples of the same word
D) Praise students for their efforts

Question 5: A child who has moved to a new region and learns to speak the local language by playing with neighborhood children is experiencing:

A) Language learning
B) Language acquisition ✅
C) Grammar instruction
D) Remedial teaching

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📚 Answers to Practice Questions

Question	Answer	Explanation
1	C	Acquisition is natural, subconscious, through exposure
2	B	Real objects are concrete before moving to abstract word concepts
3	C	Interactional function builds and maintains relationships
4	B	Simple to complex means easy to difficult progression
5	B	Natural exposure through play = acquisition

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📚 Next Chapter Preview

Chapter 5: Developing Core Language Skills (ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਦੇ ਹੁਨਰਾਂ ਦਾ ਵਿਕਾਸ) will cover:

• Receptive skills: Listening and Reading

• Productive skills: Speaking and Writing

• Teaching strategies for each skill

• Integrating skills in the classroom

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[!TIP]
Exam Day Reminder:

• For acquisition vs. learning questions, remember: acquisition is natural, learning is formal

• For principles, think about what the teacher is doing in the scenario

• For language functions, ask: "What is the child trying to DO with language?"

•